JERUSALEM MAP AFTER INDEPENDENCE WAR ISRAEL JORDAN SHLOMO BEN DAVID 1955

Description: JERUSALEM MAP AFTER INDEPENDENCE WAR ISRAEL JORDAN This is a rare Hebrew map of Old and New Jerusalem that was issued in 1955 showing the border lines after Israel- Jordan cease- fire agreement in 1949. This map was issued by Stiematzki, illustrated by SHLOMO BEN DAVID. Litho offset by Monson, Jerusalem. On the back index name of attractions, places; bus stations, post offices, Hospitals, holy places, etc... Fine condition, old tape residual signs. This map measures 70x50 cm. Buyer to pay $10.00 shipping international registered air mail. Authenticity 100% Guaranteed Please have a look at my other listings Good Luck! The Israeli Declaration of Independence,[note 1] formally the Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel (Hebrew: הכרזה על הקמת מדינת ישראל‎), was proclaimed on 14 May 1948 (5 Iyar 5708) by David Ben-Gurion, the Executive Head of the World Zionist Organization,[a][2] Chairman of the Jewish Agency for Palestine, and soon to be first Prime Minister of Israel.[3] It declared the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz-Israel, to be known as the State of Israel, which would come into effect on termination of the British Mandate at midnight that day.[4][5] The event is celebrated annually in Israel with a national holiday Independence Day on 5 Iyar of every year according to the Hebrew calendar. Contents 1 Background 1.1 Drafting the text 1.2 Minhelet HaAm Vote 1.3 Final wording 1.3.1 Borders 1.3.2 Religion 1.3.3 Name 1.3.4 Other items 2 Declaration ceremony 2.1 Signatories 3 Aftermath 4 Status in Israeli law 5 The scroll 6 See also 7 Notes 8 References 9 External links Background The possibility of a Jewish homeland in Palestine had been a goal of Zionist organizations since the late 19th century. In 1917 British Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour stated in a letter to British Jewish community leader Walter, Lord Rothschild that: His Majesty's government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.[6] Through this letter, which became known as the Balfour Declaration, British government policy officially endorsed Zionism. After World War I, the United Kingdom was given a mandate for Palestine, which it had conquered from the Ottomans during the war. In 1937 the Peel Commission suggested partitioning Mandate Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state, though the proposal was rejected as unworkable by the government and was at least partially to blame for the renewal of the 1936–39 Arab revolt. The UN partition plan In the face of increasing violence after World War II, the British handed the issue over to the recently established United Nations. The result was Resolution 181(II), a plan to partition Palestine into Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem. The Jewish state was to receive around 56% of the land area of Mandate Palestine, encompassing 82% of the Jewish population, though it would be separated from Jerusalem. The plan was accepted by most of the Jewish population, but rejected by much of the Arab populace. On 29 November 1947, the resolution to recommend to the United Kingdom, as the mandatory Power for Palestine, and to all other Members of the United Nations the adoption and implementation, with regard to the future government of Palestine, of the Plan of Partition with Economic Union was put to a vote in the United Nations General Assembly.[7] The result was 33 to 13 in favour of the resolution, with 10 abstentions. Resolution 181(II): PART I: Future constitution and government of Palestine: A. TERMINATION OF MANDATE, PARTITION AND INDEPENDENCE: Clause 3 provides: Independent Arab and Jewish States and the Special International Regime for the City of Jerusalem, ... shall come into existence in Palestine two months after the evacuation of the armed forces of the mandatory Power has been completed but in any case not later than 1 October 1948. The Arab countries (all of which had opposed the plan) proposed to query the International Court of Justice on the competence of the General Assembly to partition a country, but the resolution was rejected. Drafting the text The first draft of the declaration was made by Zvi Berenson, the legal advisor of the Histadrut trade union and later a Justice of the Supreme Court, at the request of Pinchas Rosen. A revised second draft was made by three lawyers, A. Beham, A. Hintzheimer and Z.E. Baker, and was framed by a committee including David Remez, Pinchas Rosen, Haim-Moshe Shapira, Moshe Sharett and Aharon Zisling.[8] A second committee meeting, which included David Ben-Gurion, Yehuda Leib Maimon, Sharett and Zisling produced the final text.[9] Minhelet HaAm Vote On 12 May 1948, the Minhelet HaAm (Hebrew: מנהלת העם‎, lit. People's Administration) was convened to vote on declaring independence.[10][11] Three of the thirteen members were missing, with Yehuda Leib Maimon and Yitzhak Gruenbaum being blocked in besieged Jerusalem, while Yitzhak-Meir Levin was in the United States. The meeting started at 13:45 and ended after midnight. The decision was between accepting the American proposal for a truce, or declaring independence. The latter option was put to a vote, with six of the ten members present supporting it: For: David Ben-Gurion, Moshe Sharett (Mapai); Peretz Bernstein (General Zionists); Haim-Moshe Shapira (Hapoel HaMizrachi); Mordechai Bentov, Aharon Zisling (Mapam). Against: Eliezer Kaplan, David Remez (Mapai); Pinchas Rosen (New Aliyah Party); Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit (Sephardim and Oriental Communities). Chaim Weizmann, the Chairman of the World Zionist Organization,[a] and soon to be first President of Israel, endorsed the decision, after reportedly asking "What are they waiting for, the idiots?"[8] Final wording The draft text was submitted for approval to a meeting of Moetzet HaAm at the JNF building in Tel Aviv on 14 May. The meeting started at 13:50 and ended at 15:00, an hour before the declaration was due to be made. Despite ongoing disagreements, members of the Council unanimously voted in favour of the final text. During the process, there were two major debates, centring on the issues of borders and religion. Borders See also: Borders of Israel On the day of its proclamation, Eliahu Epstein wrote to Harry S. Truman that the state had been proclaimed "within the frontiers approved by the General Assembly of the United Nations in its Resolution of November 29, 1947". The borders were not specified in the Declaration, although its 14th paragraph indicated a willingness to cooperate in the implementation of the UN Partition Plan. The original draft had declared that the borders would be decided by the UN partition plan. While this was supported by Rosen and Bechor-Shalom Sheetrit, it was opposed by Ben-Gurion and Zisling, with Ben-Gurion stating, "We accepted the UN Resolution, but the Arabs did not. They are preparing to make war on us. If we defeat them and capture western Galilee or territory on both sides of the road to Jerusalem, these areas will become part of the state. Why should we obligate ourselves to accept boundaries that in any case the Arabs don't accept?"[8] The inclusion of the designation of borders in the text was dropped after the provisional government of Israel, the Minhelet HaAm, voted 5–4 against it.[9] The Revisionists, committed to a Jewish state on both sides of the Jordan River (that is, including Transjordan), wanted the phrase "within its historic borders" included, but were unsuccessful. Religion The second major issue was over the inclusion of God in the last section of the document, with the draft using the phrase "and placing our trust in the Almighty". The two rabbis, Shapira and Yehuda Leib Maimon, argued for its inclusion, saying that it could not be omitted, with Shapira supporting the wording "God of Israel" or "the Almighty and Redeemer of Israel".[8] It was strongly opposed by Zisling, a member of the secularist Mapam. In the end the phrase "Rock of Israel" was used, which could be interpreted as either referring to God, or the land of Eretz Israel, Ben-Gurion saying "Each of us, in his own way, believes in the 'Rock of Israel' as he conceives it. I should like to make one request: Don't let me put this phrase to a vote." Although its use was still opposed by Zisling, the phrase was accepted without a vote. Name The writers also had to decide on the name for the new state. Eretz Israel, Ever (from the name Eber), Judea, and Zion were all suggested, as were Ziona, Ivriya and Herzliya.[12] Judea and Zion were rejected because, according to the partition plan, Jerusalem (Zion) and most of the Judean mountains would be outside the new state.[13] Ben-Gurion put forward "Israel" and it passed by a vote of 6–3.[14] Official documents released in April 2013 by the State Archive of Israel show that days before the establishment of the State of Israel in May 1948, officials were still debating about what the new country would be called in Arabic: Palestine (فلسطين Filastin), Zion (صهيون Sayoun) or Israel (إسرائيل Eesra’il). Two assumptions were made: "That an Arab state was about to be established alongside the Jewish one in keeping with the UN’s partition resolution the year before, and that the Jewish state would include a large Arab minority whose feelings needed to be taken into account". In the end, the officials rejected the name Palestine because they thought that would be the name of the new Arab state and could cause confusion so they opted for the most straightforward option of Israel.[15] Other items At the meeting on 14 May, several other members of Moetzet HaAm suggested additions to the document. Meir Vilner wanted it to denounce the British Mandate and military but Sharett said it was out of place. Meir Argov pushed to mention the Displaced Persons camps in Europe and to guarantee freedom of language. Ben-Gurion agreed with the latter but noted that Hebrew should be the main language of the state. The debate over wording did not end completely even after the Declaration had been made. Declaration signer Meir David Loewenstein later claimed, "It ignored our sole right to Eretz Israel, which is based on the covenant of the Lord with Abraham, our father, and repeated promises in the Tanach. It ignored the aliya of the Ramban and the students of the Vilna Gaon and the Ba'al Shem Tov, and the [rights of] Jews who lived in the 'Old Yishuv'."[16] Declaration ceremony A celebratory crowd outside the Tel Aviv Museum, located in 16 Rothschild Boulevard, to hear the Declaration The invitation to the ceremony, dated 13 May 1948. David Ben-Gurion declaring independence beneath a large portrait of Theodor Herzl, founder of modern Zionism The ceremony was held in the Tel Aviv Museum (today known as Independence Hall) but was not widely publicised as it was feared that the British Authorities might attempt to prevent it or that the Arab armies might invade earlier than expected. An invitation was sent out by messenger on the morning of 14 May telling recipients to arrive at 15:30 and to keep the event a secret. The event started at 16:00 (a time chosen so as not to breach the sabbath) and was broadcast live as the first transmission of the new radio station Kol Yisrael.[17] The final draft of the declaration was typed at the Jewish National Fund building following its approval earlier in the day. Ze'ev Sherf, who stayed at the building in order to deliver the text, had forgotten to arrange transport for himself. Ultimately, he had to flag down a passing car and ask the driver (who was driving a borrowed car without a license) to take him to the ceremony. Sherf's request was initially refused but he managed to persuade the driver to take him.[8] The car was stopped by a policeman for speeding while driving across the city though a ticket was not issued after it was explained that he was delaying the declaration of independence.[14] Sherf arrived at the museum at 15:59.[18] At 16:00, Ben-Gurion opened the ceremony by banging his gavel on the table, prompting a spontaneous rendition of Hatikvah, soon to be Israel's national anthem, from the 250 guests.[14] On the wall behind the podium hung a picture of Theodor Herzl, the founder of modern Zionism, and two flags, later to become the official flag of Israel. After telling the audience "I shall now read to you the scroll of the Establishment of the State, which has passed its first reading by the National Council", Ben-Gurion proceeded to read out the declaration, taking 16 minutes, ending with the words "Let us accept the Foundation Scroll of the Jewish State by rising" and calling on Rabbi Fishman to recite the Shehecheyanu blessing.[14] Signatories Ben Gurion (Left) Signing the Declaration of Independence held by Moshe Sharett As leader of the Yishuv, David Ben-Gurion was the first person to sign. The declaration was due to be signed by all 37 members of Moetzet HaAm. However, twelve members could not attend, with eleven of them trapped in besieged Jerusalem and one abroad. The remaining 25 signatories present were called up in alphabetical order to sign, leaving spaces for those absent. Although a space was left for him between the signatures of Eliyahu Dobkin and Meir Vilner, Zerach Warhaftig signed at the top of the next column, leading to speculation that Vilner's name had been left alone to isolate him, or to stress that even a communist had agreed with the declaration.[14] However, Warhaftig later denied this, stating that a space had been left for him (as he was one of the signatories trapped in Jerusalem) where a Hebraicised form of his name would have fitted alphabetically, but he insisted on signing under his actual name so as to honour his father's memory and so moved down two spaces. He and Vilner would be the last surviving signatories, and remained close for the rest of their lives. Of the signatories, two were women (Golda Meir and Rachel Cohen-Kagan).[19] When Herzl Rosenblum, a journalist, was called up to sign, Ben-Gurion instructed him to sign under the name Herzl Vardi, his pen name, as he wanted more Hebrew names on the document. Although Rosenblum acquiesced to Ben-Gurion's request and legally changed his name to Vardi, he later admitted to regretting not signing as Rosenblum.[14] Several other signatories later Hebraised their names, including Meir Argov (Grabovsky), Peretz Bernstein (then Fritz Bernstein), Avraham Granot (Granovsky), Avraham Nissan (Katznelson), Moshe Kol (Kolodny), Yehuda Leib Maimon (Fishman), Golda Meir (Meyerson/Myerson), Pinchas Rosen (Felix Rosenblueth) and Moshe Sharett (Shertok). Other signatories added their own touches, including Saadia Kobashi who added the phrase "HaLevy", referring to the tribe of Levi.[20] After Sharett, the last of the signatories, had put his name to paper, the audience again stood and the Israel Philharmonic Orchestra played "Hatikvah". Ben-Gurion concluded the event with the words "The State of Israel is established! This meeting is adjourned!"[14] Aftermath Main article: 1948 Palestine war Part of a series on the History of Israel Ancient Israel and Judah Prehistory NatufianCanaanIsraelitesUnited monarchyNorthern KingdomKingdom of JudahBabylonian rule Second Temple period (530 BCE–70 CE) Persian ruleHellenistic periodHasmonean dynastyHerodian dynasty KingdomTetrarchyRoman Judea Late Classic (70-636) Roman PalaestinaByzantine Palaestina PrimaSecunda Middle Ages (636–1517) Caliphates FilastinUrdunnKingdom of JerusalemAyyubid dynastyMamluk Sultanate Modern history (1517–1948) Ottoman rule EyaletMutasarrifateOld YishuvZionismOETABritish mandate Yishuv State of Israel (1948–present) Timeline YearsIndependenceArab–Israeli conflictAusteritySilicon WadiIran–Israel conflict History of the Land of Israel by topic Historical mapsHistorical populationHistorical literatureJudaismJerusalemZionismJewish leadersJewish warfare Related Jewish historyHebrew calendarArchaeologyMuseums Israel portal vte The declaration was signed in the context of civil war between the Arab and Jewish populations of the Mandate that had started the day after the partition vote at the UN six months earlier. Neighbouring Arab states and the Arab League were opposed to the vote and had declared they would intervene to prevent its implementation. In a cablegram on 15 May 1948 to the Secretary-General of the United Nations, the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States claimed that "the Arab states find themselves compelled to intervene in order to restore law and order and to check further bloodshed".[21] Over the next few days after the declaration, armies of Egypt, Trans-Jordan, Iraq, and Syria engaged Israeli troops inside the area of what had just ceased to be Mandatory Palestine, thereby starting the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. A truce began on 11 June, but fighting resumed on 8 July and stopped again on 18 July, before restarting in mid-October and finally ending on 24 July 1949 with the signing of the armistice agreement with Syria. By then Israel had retained its independence and increased its land area by almost 50% compared to the 1947 UN Partition Plan.[22] Following the declaration, Moetzet HaAm became the Provisional State Council, which acted as the legislative body for the new state until the first elections in January 1949.[citation needed] Many of the signatories would play a prominent role in Israeli politics following independence; Moshe Sharett and Golda Meir both served as Prime Minister, Yitzhak Ben-Zvi became the country's second president in 1952, and several others served as ministers. David Remez was the first signatory to pass away, dying in May 1951, while Meir Vilner, the youngest signatory at just 29, was the longest living, serving in the Knesset until 1990 and dying in June 2003. Eliyahu Berligne, the oldest signatory at 82, died in 1959.[citation needed] Eleven minutes after midnight, the United States de facto recognized the State of Israel.[23] This was followed by Iran (which had voted against the UN partition plan), Guatemala, Iceland, Nicaragua, Romania, and Uruguay. The Soviet Union was the first nation to fully recognize Israel de jure on 17 May 1948,[24] followed by Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Ireland, and South Africa.[citation needed] The United States extended official recognition after the first Israeli election, as Truman had promised on 31 January 1949.[25] By virtue of General Assembly Resolution 273 (III), Israel was admitted to membership in the United Nations on 11 May 1949.[26] In the three years following the 1948 Palestine war, about 700,000 Jews immigrated to Israel, residing mainly along the borders and in former Arab lands.[27] Around 136,000 were some of the 250,000 displaced Jews of World War II.[28] And from the 1948 Arab–Israeli War until the early 1970s, 800,000–1,000,000 Jews left, fled, or were expelled from their homes in Arab countries; 260,000 of them reached Israel between 1948 and 1951; and 600,000 by 1972.[29][30][31] At the same time, a large number of Arabs left, fled or were expelled from, what became Israel. In the Report of the Technical Committee on Refugees (Submitted to the United Nations Conciliation Commission for Palestine in Lausanne on 7 September 1949) – (A/1367/Rev.1), in paragraph 15,[32] the estimate of the statistical expert, which the Committee believed to be as accurate as circumstances permitted, indicated that the number of refugees from Israel-controlled territory amounted to approximately 711,000.[33] Status in Israeli law Independence Hall as it appeared in 2007 Paragraph 13 of the Declaration provides that the State of Israel would be based on freedom, justice and peace as envisaged by the prophets of Israel; it will ensure complete equality of social and political rights to all its inhabitants irrespective of religion, race or sex;. However, the Knesset maintains that the declaration is neither a law nor an ordinary legal document.[34] The Supreme Court has ruled that the guarantees were merely guiding principles, and that the declaration is not a constitutional law making a practical ruling on the upholding or nullification of various ordinances and statutes.[35] In 1994 the Knesset amended two basic laws, Human Dignity and Liberty and Freedom of Occupation, introducing (among other changes) a statement saying "the fundamental human rights in Israel will be honored (...) in the spirit of the principles included in the declaration of the establishment of the State of Israel." The scroll Although Ben-Gurion had told the audience that he was reading from the scroll of independence, he was actually reading from handwritten notes because only the bottom part of the scroll had been finished by artist and calligrapher Otte Wallish by the time of the declaration (he did not complete the entire document until June).[16] The scroll, which is bound together in three parts, is generally kept in the country's National Archives. See also Israel portal Politics portal Balfour Declaration British Mandate for Palestine (legal instrument) Mandatory Palestine Churchill White Paper 1929 Palestine riots Passfield white paper White Paper of 1939 United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine Declaration of Establishment of State of Israel English translation of text on the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Afairs website The Recording of the Israel Declaration of Independence 1948 Arab–Israeli War Palestinian Declaration of Independence Yom Ha'atzmaut List of international declarations ***** The United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a proposal by the United Nations, which recommended a partition of Mandatory Palestine at the end of the British Mandate. On 29 November 1947, the UN General Assembly adopted the Plan as Resolution 181 (II).[2] The resolution recommended the creation of independent Arab and Jewish States and a Special International Regime for the city of Jerusalem. The Partition Plan, a four-part document attached to the resolution, provided for the termination of the Mandate, the progressive withdrawal of British armed forces and the delineation of boundaries between the two States and Jerusalem. Part I of the Plan stipulated that the Mandate would be terminated as soon as possible and the United Kingdom would withdraw no later than 1 August 1948. The new states would come into existence two months after the withdrawal, but no later than 1 October 1948. The Plan sought to address the conflicting objectives and claims of two competing movements, Palestinian nationalism and Jewish nationalism, or Zionism.[3][4] The Plan also called for Economic Union between the proposed states, and for the protection of religious and minority rights. The Plan was accepted by the Jewish Agency for Palestine, despite its perceived limitations.[5][6] Arab leaders and governments rejected it[7] and indicated an unwillingness to accept any form of territorial division,[8] arguing that it violated the principles of national self-determination in the UN Charter which granted people the right to decide their own destiny.[6][9] Immediately after adoption of the Resolution by the General Assembly, a civil war broke out[10] and the plan was not implemented.[11] Contents 1 Background 2 United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) 2.1 UNSCOP report 2.2 Proposed partition 3 Ad hoc Committee 3.1 Sub-Committee 2 3.2 Boundary changes 4 The vote 4.1 Reports of pressure for and against the Plan 4.1.1 Reports of pressure for the Plan 4.1.2 Reports of pressure against the Plan 4.2 Final vote 4.2.1 In favour (33 countries, 72% of total votes) 4.2.2 Against (13 countries, 28% of total votes) 4.2.3 Abstentions (10 countries) 4.2.4 Absent (1 country) 4.3 Votes by modern region 5 Reactions 5.1 Jews 5.2 Arabs 5.2.1 Arab states 5.2.2 Arabs in Palestine 5.3 British government 5.4 United States government 6 Subsequent events 7 Resolution 181 as a legal basis for Palestinian statehood 8 Retrospect 9 See also 10 Footnotes 11 References 12 Bibliography 13 External links Background The British administration was formalized by the League of Nations under the Palestine Mandate in 1923, as part of the Partitioning of the Ottoman Empire following World War I. The Mandate reaffirmed the 1917 British commitment to the Balfour Declaration, for the establishment in Palestine of a "National Home" for the Jewish people, with the prerogative to carry it out.[12][13] A British census of 1918 estimated 700,000 Arabs and 56,000 Jews.[12] In 1937, following a six-month-long Arab General Strike and armed insurrection which aimed to pursue national independence and secure the country from foreign control, the British established the Peel Commission.[14] The Commission concluded that the Mandate had become unworkable, and recommended Partition into an Arab state linked to Transjordan; a small Jewish state; and a mandatory zone. To address problems arising from the presence of national minorities in each area, it suggested a land and population transfer[15] involving the transfer of some 225,000 Arabs living in the envisaged Jewish state and 1,250 Jews living in a future Arab state, a measure deemed compulsory "in the last resort".[15][16][17] To address any economic problems, the Plan proposed avoiding interfering with Jewish immigration, since any interference would be liable to produce an "economic crisis", most of Palestine's wealth coming from the Jewish community. To solve the predicted annual budget deficit of the Arab State and reduction in public services due to loss of tax from the Jewish state, it was proposed that the Jewish state pay an annual subsidy to the Arab state and take on half of the latter's deficit.[15][16][18] The Palestinian Arab leadership rejected partition as unacceptable, given the inequality in the proposed population exchange and the transfer of one-third of Palestine, including most of its best agricultural land, to recent immigrants.[17] The Jewish leaders, Chaim Weizmann and David Ben-Gurion, persuaded the Zionist Congress to lend provisional approval to the Peel recommendations as a basis for further negotiations.[19][20][21][22] In a letter to his son in October 1937, Ben-Gurion explained that partition would be a first step to "possession of the land as a whole".[23][24][25] The same sentiment, that acceptance of partition was a temporary measure beyond which the Palestine would be "redeemed . . in its entirety,"[26] was recorded by Ben-Gurion on other occasions, such as at a meeting of the Jewish Agency executive in June 1938,[27] as well as by Chaim Weizmann.[25][28] The British Woodhead Commission was set up to examine the practicality of partition. The Peel plan was rejected and two possible alternatives were considered. In 1938 the British government issued a policy statement declaring that "the political, administrative and financial difficulties involved in the proposal to create independent Arab and Jewish States inside Palestine are so great that this solution of the problem is impracticable". Representatives of Arabs and Jews were invited to London for the St. James Conference, which proved unsuccessful.[29] With World War II looming, British policies were influenced by a desire to win Arab world support and could ill afford to engage with another Arab uprising.[30] The MacDonald White Paper of May 1939 declared that it was "not part of [the British government's] policy that Palestine should become a Jewish State", sought to limit Jewish immigration to Palestine and restricted Arab land sales to Jews. However, the League of Nations commission held that the White Paper was in conflict with the terms of the Mandate as put forth in the past. The outbreak of the Second World War suspended any further deliberations.[31][32] The Jewish Agency hoped to persuade the British to restore Jewish immigration rights, and cooperated with the British in the war against Fascism. Aliyah Bet was organized to spirit Jews out of Nazi controlled Europe, despite the British prohibitions. The White Paper also led to the formation of Lehi, a small Jewish organization which opposed the British. After World War II, in August 1945 President Truman asked for the admission of 100,000 Holocaust survivors into Palestine[33] but the British maintained limits on Jewish immigration in line with the 1939 White Paper. The Jewish community rejected the restriction on immigration and organized an armed resistance. These actions and United States pressure to end the anti-immigration policy led to the establishment of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. In April 1946, the Committee reached a unanimous decision for the immediate admission of 100,000 Jewish refugees from Europe into Palestine, rescission of the white paper restrictions of land sale to Jews, that the country be neither Arab nor Jewish, and the extension of U.N. Trusteeship. The U.S. endorsed the Commission's findings concerning Jewish immigration and land purchase restrictions,[34] while The U.K. conditioned their implementation on U.S. assistance in case of another Arab revolt.[34] In effect the British continued to carry out their White Paper policy.[35] The recommendations triggered violent demonstrations in the Arab states, and calls for a Jihad and an annihilation of all European Jews in Palestine.[36] United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) Further information: UNSCOP Map showing Jewish-owned land as of 31 December 1944, including land owned in full, shared in undivided land, and State Lands under concession. This constituted 6% of the total land area or 20% of cultivatable land,[37] of which more than half was held by the JNF and PICA[38] Under the terms of League of Nations A-class mandates each such mandatory territory was to become a sovereign state on termination of its mandate. By the end ofWorld War II, this occurred with all such mandates except Palestine, however the League of Nations itself lapsed in 1946 leading to a legal quandary.[39][40] In February 1947, Britain announced its intent to terminate the Mandate for Palestine, referring the matter of the future of Palestine to the United Nations.[41] The hope was that a binational state would ensue, which meant an unpartitioned Palestine. British Foreign Secretary Ernest Bevin's policy was premised on the idea that an Arab majority would carry the day, which met difficulties with Harry Truman who, sensitive to Zionist electoral pressures in the United States, pressed for a British-Zionist compromise.[42] In May, the UN formed the United Nations Special Committee on Palestine (UNSCOP) to prepare a report on recommendations for Palestine. The Jewish Agency pressed for Jewish representation and the exclusion of both Britain and Arab countries on the Committee, sought visits to camps where Holocaust survivors were interned in Europe as part of UNSCOP's brief, and in May won representation on the Political Committee.[43] The Arab states, convinced statehood had been subverted, and that the transition of authority from the League of Nations to the UN was questionable in law, wished the issues to be brought before an International Court, and refused to collaborate with UNSCOP, which had extended an invitation for liaison also to the Arab Higher Committee.[40][44] In August, after three months of conducting hearings and a general survey of the situation in Palestine, a majority report of the committee recommended that the region be partitioned into an Arab state and a Jewish state, which should retain an economic union. An international regime was envisioned for Jerusalem. The Arab delegations at the UN had sought to keep separate the issue of Palestine from the issue of Jewish refugees in Europe. During their visit, UNSCOP members were shocked by the extent of Lehi and Irgun violence, then at its apogee, and by the elaborate military presence attested by endemic barb-wire, searchlights, and armoured-car patrols. Committee members also witnessed the SS Exodus affair in Haifa and could hardly have remained unaffected by it. On concluding their mission, they dispatched a subcommittee to investigate Jewish refugee camps in Europe.[45][46] The incident is mentioned in the report in relation to Jewish distrust and resentment concerning the British enforcement of the 1939 White Paper.[47] UNSCOP report On 3 September 1947, the Committee reported to the General Assembly.CHAPTER V: PROPOSED RECOMMENDATIONS (I), Section A of the Report contained eleven proposed recommendations (I - XI) approved unanimously. Section B contained one proposed recommendation approved by a substantial majority dealing with the Jewish problem in general (XI). CHAPTER VI: PROPOSED RECOMMENDATIONS (II) contained a Plan of Partition with Economic Union to which seven members of the Committee (Canada, Czechoslovakia, Guatemala, the Netherlands, Peru, Sweden and Uruguay), expressed themselves in favour. CHAPTER VII RECOMMENDATIONS (III)' contained a comprehensive proposal that was voted upon and supported by three members (India, Iran, and Yugoslavia) for a Federal State of Palestine. Australia abstained. In CHAPTER VIII a number of members of the Committee expressed certain reservations and observations.[48] Proposed partition See also: Land ownership of the British Mandate of Palestine Land ownership Population distribution Two maps reviewed by UN Subcommittee 2 in considering partition The report of the majority of the Committee (CHAPTER VI) envisaged the division of Palestine into three parts: an Arab State, a Jewish State and the City of Jerusalem, linked by extraterritorial crossroads. The proposed Arab State would include the central and part of western Galilee, with the town of Acre, the hill country of Samaria and Judea, an enclave at Jaffa, and the southern coast stretching from north of Isdud (now Ashdod) and encompassing what is now the Gaza Strip, with a section of desert along the Egyptian border. The proposed Jewish State would include the fertile Eastern Galilee, the Coastal Plain, stretching from Haifa to Rehovot and most of the Negev desert,[49] including the southern outpost of Umm Rashrash (now Eilat). The Jerusalem Corpus Separatum included Bethlehem and the surrounding areas. The primary objectives of the majority of the Committee were political division and economic unity between the two groups.[50] The Plan tried its best to accommodate as many Jews as possible into the Jewish State. In many specific cases,[citation needed] this meant including areas of Arab majority (but with a significant Jewish minority) in the Jewish state. Thus the Jewish State would have an overall large Arab minority. Areas that were sparsely populated (like the Negev desert), were also included in the Jewish state to create room for immigration. According to the plan, Jews and Arabs living in the Jewish state would become citizens of the Jewish state and Jews and Arabs living in the Arab state would become citizens of the Arab state. By virtue of Chapter 3, Palestinian citizens residing in Palestine outside the City of Jerusalem, as well as Arabs and Jews who, not holding Palestinian citizenship, resided in Palestine outside the City of Jerusalem would, upon the recognition of independence, become citizens of the State in which they were resident and enjoy full civil and political rights. The Plan would have had the following demographics (data based on 1945). Territory Arab and other population % Arab and other Jewish population % Jewish Total population Arab State 725,000 99% 10,000 1% 735,000 Jewish State 407,000 45% 498,000 55% 905,000 International 105,000 51% 100,000 49% 205,000 Total 1,237,000 67% 608,000 33% 1,845,000 Data from the Report of UNSCOP: 3 September 1947: CHAPTER 4: A COMMENTARY ON PARTITION The land allocated to the Arab State in the final plan included about 43% of Mandatory Palestine[51][52][53] and consisted of all of the highlands, except for Jerusalem, plus one-third of the coastline. The highlands contain the major aquifers of Palestine, which supplied water to the coastal cities of central Palestine, including Tel Aviv.[citation needed] The Jewish State allocated to the Jews, who constituted a third of the population and owned about 7% of the land, was to receive 56% of Mandatory Palestine, a slightly larger area to accommodate the increasing numbers of Jews who would immigrate there.[52][53][54] The Jewish State included three fertile lowland plains – the Sharon on the coast, the Jezreel Valley and the upper Jordan Valley. The bulk of the proposed Jewish State's territory, however, consisted of the Negev Desert,[49] which was not suitable for agriculture, nor for urban development at that time. The Jewish State would also be given sole access to the Sea of Galilee, crucial for its water supply, and the economically important Red Sea. The committee voted for the plan, 25 to 13 (with 17 abstentions) on 25 November 1947 and the General Assembly was called back into a special session to vote on the proposal. Various sources noted that this was one vote short of the two-thirds majority required in the General Assembly.[54] Ad hoc Committee Boundaries defined in the 1947 UN Partition Plan for Palestine: Area assigned for a Jewish state Area assigned for an Arab state Planned Corpus separatum with the intention that Jerusalem would be neither Jewish nor Arab Armistice Demarcation Lines of 1949 (Green Line): Israeli controlled territory from 1949 Egyptian and Jordanian controlled territory from 1948 until 1967 Main article: Ad Hoc Committee on the Palestinian Question On 23 September 1947 the General Assembly established the Ad Hoc Committee on the Palestinian Question to consider the UNSCOP report. Representatives of the Arab Higher Committee and Jewish Agency were invited and attended.[55] During the committee's deliberations, the British government endorsed the report's recommendations concerning the end of the mandate, independence, and Jewish immigration.[citation needed] However, the British did "not feel able to implement" any agreement unless it was acceptable to both the Arabs and the Jews, and asked that the General Assembly provide an alternative implementing authority if that proved to be the case. The Arab Higher Committee rejected both the majority and minority recommendations within the UNSCOP report. They "concluded from a survey of Palestine history that Zionist claims to that country had no legal or moral basis". The Arab Higher Committee argued that only an Arab State in the whole of Palestine would be consistent with the UN Charter. The Jewish Agency expressed support for most of the UNSCOP recommendations, but emphasized the "intense urge" of the overwhelming majority of Jewish displaced persons to proceed to Palestine. The Jewish Agency criticized the proposed boundaries, especially in the Western Galilee and Western Jerusalem (outside of the old city), arguing that these should be included in the Jewish state. However, they agreed to accept the plan if "it would make possible the immediate re-establishment of the Jewish State with sovereign control of its own immigration." Arab states requested representation on the UN ad hoc subcommittees of October 1947, but were excluded from Subcommittee One, which had been delegated the specific task of studying and, if thought necessary, modifying the boundaries of the proposed partition.[56] Sub-Committee 2 The Sub-Committee 2, set up on 23 October 1947 to draw up a detailed plan based on proposals of Arab states presented its report within a few weeks.[57] Based on a reproduced British report, the Sub-Committee 2 criticised the UNSCOP report for using inaccurate population figures, especially concerning the Bedouin population. The British report, dated 1 November 1947, used the results of a new census in Beersheba in 1946 with additional use of aerial photographs, and an estimate of the population in other districts. It found that the size of the Bedouin population was greatly understated in former enumerations. In Beersheba, 3,389 Bedouin houses and 8,722 tents were counted. The total Bedouin population was estimated at approximately 127,000; only 22,000 of them normally resident in the Arab state under the UNSCOP majority plan. The British report stated: "the term Beersheba Bedouin has a meaning more definite than one would expect in the case of a nomad population. These tribes, wherever they are found in Palestine, will always describe themselves as Beersheba tribes. Their attachment to the area arises from their land rights there and their historic association with it."[58] In respect of the UNSCOP report, the Sub-Committee concluded that the earlier population ″estimates must, however, be corrected in the light of the information furnished to the Sub-Committee by the representative of the United Kingdom regarding the Bedouin population. According to the statement, 22,000 Bedouins may be taken as normally residing in the areas allocated to the Arab State under the UNSCOP's majority plan, and the balance of 105,000 as resident in the proposed Jewish State. It will thus be seen that the proposed Jewish State will contain a total population of 1,008,800, consisting of 509,780 Arabs and 499,020 Jews. In other words, at the outset, the Arabs will have a majority in the proposed Jewish State.″[59] The Sub-Committee 2 recommended to put the question of the Partition Plan before the International Court of Justice (Resolution No. I [60]). In respect of the Jewish refugees due to World War II, the Sub-Committee recommended to request the countries of which the refugees belonged to take them back as much as possible (Resolution No. II[61]). The Sub-Committee proposed to establish a unitary state (Resolution No. III[62]). Boundary changes The ad hoc committee made a number of boundary changes to the UNSCOP recommendations before they were voted on by the General Assembly. The predominantly Arab city of Jaffa, previously located within the Jewish state, was constituted as an enclave of the Arab State. The boundary of the Arab state was modified to include Beersheba and a strip of the Negev desert along the Egyptian border,[49] while a section of the Dead Sea shore and other additions were made to the Jewish State. This move increased the Jewish percentage in the Jewish state from 55% to 61%.[citation needed] The proposed boundaries would also have placed 54 Arab villages on the opposite side of the border from their farm land.[citation needed] In response, the United Nations Palestine Commission was empowered to modify the boundaries "in such a way that village areas as a rule will not be divided by state boundaries unless pressing reasons make that necessary". These modifications never occurred. The vote Report of the Ad Hoc Committee on the Palestinian Question, document A/516, dated 25 November 1947. This was the document voted on by the UN General Assembly on 29 November 1947, and became known as the "United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine".[63] Passage of the resolution required a two-thirds majority of the valid votes, not counting abstaining and absent members, of the UN's then 56 member states. On 26 November, after filibustering by the Zionist delegation, the vote was postponed by three days.[64][65] According to multiple sources, had the vote been held on the original set date, it would have received a majority, but less than the required two-thirds.[65][66][67] Various compromise proposals and variations on a single state, including federations and cantonal systems were debated (including those previously rejected in committee).[68][69] The delay was used by supporters of Zionism in New York to put extra pressure on states not supporting the resolution.[64] Reports of pressure for and against the Plan Reports of pressure for the Plan Zionists launched an intense White House lobby to have the UNSCOP plan endorsed, and the effects were not trivial.[70] The Democratic Party, a large part of whose contributions came from Jews,[71] informed Truman that failure to live up to promises to support the Jews in Palestine would constitute a danger to the party. The defection of Jewish votes in congressional elections in 1946 had contributed to electoral losses. Truman was, according to Roger Cohen, embittered by feelings of being a hostage to the lobby and its 'unwarranted interference', which he blamed for the contemporary impasse. When a formal American declaration in favour of partition was given on 11 October, a public relations authority declared to the Zionist Emergency Council in a closed meeting:'under no circumstances should any of us believe or think we had won because of the devotion of the American Government to our cause. We had won because of the sheer pressure of political logistics that was applied by the Jewish leadership in the United States'. State Department advice critical of the controversial UNSCOP recommendation to give the overwhelmingly Arab town of Jaffa, and the Negev, to the Jews was overturned by an urgent and secret late meeting organized for Chaim Weizman with Truman, which immediately countermanded the recommendation. The United States initially refrained from pressuring smaller states to vote either way, but Robert A. Lovett reported that America's U.N. delegation's case suffered impediments from high pressure by Jewish groups, and that indications existed that bribes and threats were being used, even of American sanctions against Liberia and Nicaragua.[72] When the UNSCOP plan failed to achieve the necessary majority on 25 November, the lobby 'moved into high gear' and induced the President to overrule the State Department, and let wavering governments know that the U.S. strongly desired partition.[73] Proponents of the Plan reportedly put pressure on nations to vote yes to the Partition Plan. A telegram signed by 26 US Senators with influence on foreign aid bills was sent to wavering countries, seeking their support for the partition plan.[74] The US Senate was considering a large aid package at the time, including 60 million dollars to China.[75][76] Many nations reported pressure directed specifically at them: United States (Vote: For): President Truman later noted, "The facts were that not only were there pressure movements around the United Nations unlike anything that had been seen there before, but that the White House, too, was subjected to a constant barrage. I do not think I ever had as much pressure and propaganda aimed at the White House as I had in this instance. The persistence of a few of the extreme Zionist leaders—actuated by political motives and engaging in political threats—disturbed and annoyed me."[77] India (Vote: Against): Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru spoke with anger and contempt for the way the UN vote had been lined up. He said the Zionists had tried to bribe India with millions and at the same time his sister, Vijaya Lakshmi Pandit, the Indian ambassador to the UN, had received daily warnings that her life was in danger unless "she voted right".[78] Pandit occasionally hinted that something might change in favour of the Zionists. But another Indian delegate, Kavallam Pannikar, said that India would vote for the Arab side, because of their large Moslem minority, although they knew that the Jews had a case.[79] Liberia (Vote: For): Liberia's Ambassador to the United States complained that the US delegation threatened aid cuts to several countries.[80] Harvey S. Firestone, Jr., President of Firestone Natural Rubber Company, with major holdings in the country, also pressured the Liberian government[66][74] Philippines (Vote: For): In the days before the vote, Philippines representative General Carlos P. Romulo stated "We hold that the issue is primarily moral. The issue is whether the United Nations should accept responsibility for the enforcement of a policy which is clearly repugnant to the valid nationalist aspirations of the people of Palestine. The Philippines Government holds that the United Nations ought not to accept such responsibility." After a phone call from Washington, the representative was recalled and the Philippines' vote changed.[74] Haiti (Vote: For): The promise of a five million dollar loan may or may not have secured Haiti's vote for partition.[81] France (Vote: For): Shortly before the vote, France's delegate to the United Nations was visited by Bernard Baruch, a long-term Jewish supporter of the Democratic Party who, during the recent world war, had been an economic adviser to President Roosevelt, and had latterly been appointed by President Truman as United States ambassador to the newly created UN Atomic Energy Commission. He was, privately, a supporter of the Irgun and its front organization, the American League for a Free Palestine. Baruch implied that a French failure to support the resolution might block planned American aid to France, which was badly needed for reconstruction, French currency reserves being exhausted and its balance of payments heavily in deficit. Previously, to avoid antagonising its Arab colonies, France had not publicly supported the resolution. After considering the danger of American aid being withheld, France finally voted in favour of it. So, too, did France's neighbours, Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands.[64] Venezuela (Vote: For): Carlos Eduardo Stolk, Chairman of the Delegation of Venezuela, voted in favor of Resolution 181 .[82] Cuba (Vote: Against): The Cuban delegation stated they would vote against partition "in spite of pressure being brought to bear against us" because they could not be party to coercing the majority in Palestine.[83] Siam (Absent): The credentials of the Siamese delegations were cancelled after Siam voted against partition in committee on 25 November.[65][84] There is also some evidence that Sam Zemurray put pressure on several "banana republics" to change their votes.[85] Reports of pressure against the Plan According to Benny Morris, Wasif Kamal, an Arab Higher Committee official, tried to bribe a delegate to the United Nations, perhaps a Russian.[86] Concerning the welfare of Jews in Arab countries, a number of direct threats were made: Jamal Husseini promised, "The blood will flow like rivers in the Middle East".[87] Iraqi Prime Minister Nuri al-Said, said: "We will smash the country with our guns and obliterate every place the Jews seek shelter in". Iraq’s prime minister Nuri al-Said told British diplomats that if the United Nations solution was not "satisfactory", "severe measures should be taken against all Jews in Arab countries".[88] Concerning the welfare of Jews in Arab countries, a number of predictions were made: '"On 24 November the head of the Egyptian delegation to the General Assembly, Muhammad Hussein Heykal Pasha, said that “the lives of 1,000,000 Jews in Moslem countries would be jeopardized by the establishment of a Jewish state."[89] At the 29th Meeting of the UN Ad Hoc Committee on Palestine on 24 November 1947, Dr Heykal Pasha, the Egyptian delegate, said, "if the U.N decide to amputate a part of Palestine in order to establish a Jewish state, no force on earth could prevent blood from flowing there… Moreover… no force on earth can confine it to the borders of Palestine itself… Jewish blood will necessarily be shed elsewhere in the Arab world… to place in certain and serious danger a million Jews." Mahmud Bey Fawzi (Egypt) said: "… imposed partition was sure to result in bloodshed in Palestine and in the rest of the Arab world".[90] In a speech at the General Assembly Hall at Flushing Meadow, New York, on Friday, 28 November 1947, Iraq’s Foreign Minister, Fadel Jamall, included the following statement: Partition imposed against the will of the majority of the people will jeopardize peace and harmony in the Middle East. Not only the uprising of the Arabs of Palestine is to be expected, but the masses in the Arab world cannot be restrained. The Arab-Jewish relationship in the Arab world will greatly deteriorate. There are more Jews in the Arab world outside of Palestine than there are in Palestine. In Iraq alone, we have about one hundred and fifty thousand Jews who share with Moslems and Christians all the advantages of political and economic rights. Harmony prevails among Moslems, Christians and Jews. But any injustice imposed upon the Arabs of Palestine will disturb the harmony among Jews and non-Jews in Iraq; it will breed inter-religious prejudice and hatred.[91] The Arab states warned the Western Powers that endorsement of the partition plan might be met by either or both an oil embargo and realignment of the Arab states with the Soviet Bloc.[92] Final vote On 29 November 1947, the United Nations General Assembly voted 33 to 13, with 10 abstentions and 1 absent, in favour of the modified Partition Plan. The final vote, consolidated here by modern United Nations Regional Groups rather than contemporary groupings, was as follows:[93] How UN members voted on Palestine's partition in 1947 In favour Abstained Against Absent In favour (33 countries, 72% of total votes) Latin American and Caribbean (13 countries): Bolivia Brazil Costa Rica Dominican Republic Ecuador Guatemala Haiti Nicaragua Panama Paraguay Peru Uruguay Venezuela Western European and Others (8 countries): Belgium Denmark France Iceland Luxembourg Netherlands Norway Sweden Eastern European (5 countries): Byelorussian SSR Czechoslovakia Poland Ukrainian SSR Soviet Union African (2 countries): Liberia South Africa Asia-Pacific (3 countries) Australia New Zealand Philippines North America (2 countries) Canada United States Against (13 countries, 28% of total votes) Asia-Pacific (9 countries, primarily Middle East sub-area): Afghanistan India Iran Iraq Lebanon Pakistan Saudi Arabia Syria Yemen Western European and Others (2 countries): Greece Turkey African (1 country): Egypt Latin American and Caribbean (1 country): Cuba Abstentions (10 countries) Latin American and Caribbean (6 countries): Argentina Chile Colombia El Salvador Honduras Mexico Asia-Pacific (1 country): China African (1 country): Ethiopia Western European and Others (1 country): United Kingdom Eastern European (1 country): Yugoslavia Absent (1 country) Asia-Pacific (1 country): Thailand Votes by modern region If analysed by the modern composition of what later came to be known as the United Nations Regional Groups showed relatively aligned voting styles in the final vote. This, however, does not reflect the regional grouping at the time, as a major reshuffle of regional grouping occurred in 1966. All Western nations voted for the resolution, with the exception of the United Kingdom (the Mandate holder), Greece and Turkey. The Soviet bloc also voted for partition, with the exception of Yugoslavia, which was to be expelled from Cominform the following year. The majority of Latin American nations following Brazilian leadership[citation needed], voted for partition, with a sizeable minority abstaining. Asian countries (primarily Middle Eastern countries) voted against partition, with the exception of the Philippines.[94] Regional Group Members in UNGA181 vote UNGA181 For UNGA181 Against UNGA181 Abstained African 4 2 1 1 Asia-Pacific 11 1 9 1 Eastern European 6 5 0 1 LatAm and Caribb. 20 13 1 6 Western Eur. & Others 15 12 2 1 Total UN members 56 33 13 10 Reactions Jews Most Jews in Palestine and around the world reacted to the UN resolution with satisfaction, but some did not. Jews gathered in Tel Aviv and Jerusalem to celebrate the U.N. resolution during the whole night after the vote. Great bonfires blazed at Jewish collective farms in the north. Many big cafes in Tel Aviv served free champagne.[5][95] Mainstream Zionist leaders emphasized the "heavy responsibility" of building a modern Jewish State, and committed to working towards a peaceful coexistence with the region's other inhabitants:[96][97] Jewish groups in the United States hailed the action by the United Nations. Most welcomed the Palestine Plan but some felt it did not settle the problem.[98] Some Revisionist Zionists rejected the partition plan as a renunciation of legitimately Jewish national territory.[98] The Irgun Tsvai Leumi, led by Menachem Begin, and the Lehi (also known as the Stern Group or Gang), the two Revisionist-affiliated underground organisations which had been fighting against both the British and Arabs, stated their opposition. Begin warned that the partition would not bring peace because the Arabs would also attack the small state and that "in the war ahead we'll have to stand on our own, it will be a war on our existence and future."[99] He also stated that "the bisection of our homeland is illegal. It will never be recognized."[100] Begin was sure that the creation of a Jewish state would make territorial expansion possible, "after the shedding of much blood."[101] Some Post-Zionist scholars endorse Simha Flapan's view that it is a myth that Zionists accepted the partition as a compromise by which the Jewish community abandoned ambitions for the whole of Palestine and recognized the rights of the Arab Palestinians to their own state. Rather, Flapan argued, acceptance was only a tactical move that aimed to thwart the creation of an Arab Palestinian state and, concomitantly, expand the territory that had been assigned by the UN to the Jewish state.[102][103][104][105][106] Baruch Kimmerling has said that Zionists "officially accepted the partition plan, but invested all their efforts towards improving its terms and maximally expanding their boundaries while reducing the number of Arabs in them."[107] Addressing the Central Committee of the Histadrut (the Eretz Israel Workers Party) days after the UN vote to partition Palestine, Ben-Gurion expressed his apprehension, stating: the total population of the Jewish State at the time of its establishment will be about one million, including almost 40% non-Jews. Such a [population] composition does not provide a stable basis for a Jewish State. This [demographic] fact must be viewed in all its clarity and acuteness. With such a [population] composition, there cannot even be absolute certainty that control will remain in the hands of the Jewish majority... There can be no stable and strong Jewish state so long as it has a Jewish majority of only 60%.[108] Ben-Gurion said "I know of no greater achievement by the Jewish people ... in its long history since it became a people."[109] Arabs Arab leaders and governments rejected the plan of partition in the resolution and indicated that they would reject any other plan of partition.[7] The Arab states' delegations declared immediately after the vote for partition that they would not be bound by the decision, and walked out accompanied by the Indian and Pakistani delegates.[110] They argued that it violated the principles of national self-determination in the UN charter which granted people the right to decide their own destiny.[6][9] The Arab delegations to the UN issued a joint statement the day after that vote that stated: "the vote in regard to the Partition of Palestine has been given under great pressure and duress, and that this makes it doubly invalid."[111] On 16 February 1948, the UN Palestine Commission reported to the Security Council that: "Powerful Arab interests, both inside and outside Palestine, are defying the resolution of the General Assembly and are engaged in a deliberate effort to alter by force the settlement envisaged therein."[112] Arab states A few weeks after UNSCOP released its report, Azzam Pasha, the General Secretary of the Arab League, told an Egyptian newspaper "Personally I hope the Jews do not force us into this war because it will be a war of elimination and it will be a dangerous massacre which history will record similarly to the Mongol massacre or the wars of the Crusades."[113] (This statement from October 1947 has often been incorrectly reported as having been made much later on 15 May 1948.)[114] Azzam told Alec Kirkbride "We will sweep them [the Jews] into the sea." Syrian president Shukri al-Quwatli told his people: "We shall eradicate Zionism."[115] King Farouk of Egypt told the American ambassador to Egypt that in the long run the Arabs would soundly defeat the Jews and drive them out of Palestine.[116] While Azzam Pasha repeated his threats of forceful prevention of partition, the first important Arab voice to supportd partition was the influential Egyptian daily Al Mokattam [d]: "We stand for partition because we believe that it is the best final solution for the problem of Palestine... rejection of partition... will lead to further complications and will give the Zionists another space of time to complete their plans of defense and attack... a delay of one more year which would not benefit the Arabs but would benefit the Jews, especially after the British evacuation."[117] On 20 May 1948, Azzam told reporters "We are fighting for an Arab Palestine. Whatever the outcome the Arabs will stick to their offer of equal citizenship for Jews in Arab Palestine and let them be as Jewish as they like. In areas where they predominate they will have complete autonomy."[118] The Arab League said that some of the Jews would have to be expelled from a Palestinian Arab state.[119] Abdullah appointed Ibrahim Hashem Pasha as Military Governor of the Arab areas occupied by troops of the Transjordan Army. He was a former Prime Minister of Transjordan who supported partition of Palestine as proposed by the Peel Commission and the United Nations.[120] Arabs in Palestine Haj Amin al-Husseini said in March 1948 to an interviewer from the Jaffa daily Al Sarih that the Arabs did not intend merely to prevent partition but "would continue fighting until the Zionists were Annihilated."[115] Zionists attributed Arab rejection of the plan to mere intransigence. Palestinian Arabs opposed the very idea of partition but reiterated that this partition plan was unfair: the majority of the land (56%) would go to a Jewish state, when Jews at that stage legally owned only 6-7% of it and remained a minority of the population (33% in 1946).[121][122][123][124][125][126][127][128][129] There were also disproportionate allocations under the plan and the area under Jewish control contained 45% of the Palestinian population. The proposed Arab state was only given 45% of the land, much of which was unfit for agriculture. Jaffa, though geographically separated, was to be part of the Arab state.[129] However, most of the proposed Jewish state was the Negev desert.[49][48] The plan allocated to the Jewish State most of the Negev desert that was sparsely populated and unsuitable for agriculture but also a "vital land bridge protecting British interests from the Suez Canal to Iraq"[130][131] Few Palestinian Arabs joined the Arab Liberation Army because they suspected that the other Arab States did not plan on an independent Palestinian state. According to Ian Bickerton, for that reason many of them favored partition and indicated a willingness to live alongside a Jewish state.[132] He also mentions that the Nashashibi family backed King Abdullah and union with Transjordan.[133] The AHC demanded that in a Palestinian Arab state, the majority of the Jews should not be citizens (those who had not lived in Palestine before the British Mandate).[87] According to Musa Alami, the mufti would agree to partition if he were promised that he would rule the future Arab state.[134] The Arab Higher Committee responded to the partition resolution and declared a three-day general strike in Palestine to begin the following day.[135] British government When Bevin received the partition proposal, he promptly ordered for it not to be imposed on the Arabs.[136][137] The plan was vigorously debated in the British parliament. In a British cabinet meeting at 4 December 1947, it was decided that the Mandate would end at midnight 14 May 1948, the complete withdrawal by 1 August 1948, and Britain would not enforce the UN partition plan.[138] On 11 December 1947, Britain announced the Mandate would end at midnight 14 May 1948 and its sole task would be to complete withdrawal by 1 August 1948.[139] During the period in which the British withdrawal was completed, Britain refused to share the administration of Palestine with a proposed UN transition regime, to allow the UN Palestine Commission to establish a presence in Palestine earlier than a fortnight before the end of the Mandate, to allow the creation of official Jewish and Arab militias or to assist in smoothly handing over territory or authority to any successor.[140][141] United States government The United States declined to recognize the All-Palestine government in Gaza by explaining that it had accepted the UN Mediator's proposal. The Mediator had recommended that Palestine, as defined in the original Mandate including Transjordan, might form a union.[142] Bernadotte's diary said the Mufti had lost credibility on account of his unrealistic predictions regarding the defeat of the Jewish militias. Bernadotte noted "It would seem as though in existing circumstances most of the Palestinian Arabs would be quite content to be incorporated in Transjordan."[143] Subsequent events The Partition Plan with Economic Union was not realized in the days following 29 November 1947 resolution as envisaged by the General Assembly.[11] It was followed by outbreaks of violence in Mandatory Palestine between Palestinian Jews and Arabs known as the 1947–48 Civil War.[10] After Alan Cunningham, the High Commissioner of Palestine, left Jerusalem, on the morning of 14 May the British army left the city as well. The British left a power vacuum in Jerusalem and made no measures to establish the international regime in Jerusalem.[144] At midnight on 14 May 1948, the British Mandate expired,[145] and Britain disengaged its forces. Earlier in the evening, the Jewish People's Council had gathered at the Tel Aviv Museum, and approved a proclamation, declaring "the establishment of a Jewish state in Eretz Israel, to be known as the State of Israel".[6][146] The 1948 Arab–Israeli War began with the invasion of, or intervention in, Palestine by the Arab States on 15 May 1948.[147] Resolution 181 as a legal basis for Palestinian statehood In 1988, the Palestine Liberation Organization published the Palestinian Declaration of Independence relying on Resolution 181, arguing that the resolution continues to provide international legitimacy for the right of the Palestinian people to sovereignty and national independence.[148] A number of scholars have written in support of this view.[149][150][151] A General Assembly request for an advisory opinion, Resolution ES-10/14 (2004), specifically cited resolution 181(II) as a "relevant resolution", and asked the International Court of Justice (ICJ) what are the legal consequences of the relevant Security Council and General Assembly resolutions. Judge Abdul Koroma explained the majority opinion: "The Court has also held that the right of self-determination as an established and recognized right under international law applies to the territory and to the Palestinian people. Accordingly, the exercise of such right entitles the Palestinian people to a State of their own as originally envisaged in resolution 181 (II) and subsequently confirmed."[152] In response, Prof. Paul De Waart said that the Court put the legality of the 1922 League of Nations Palestine Mandate and the 1947 UN Plan of Partition beyond doubt once and for all.[153] Retrospect In 2011, Mahmoud Abbas stated that the 1947 Arab rejection of United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine was a mistake he hoped to rectify.[154] See also Declaration of the Establishment of the State of Israel Faisal–Weizmann Agreement Israeli–Palestinian conflict Lausanne Conference, 1949 Minority Treaties Proposals for a Palestinian state Sykes–Picot Agreement Two-state solution United Nations Division for Palestinian Rights United Nations Information System on the Question of Palestine The Church of the Holy Sepulchre[b] (Arabic: كنيسة القيامة‎‎, Kaneesat al-Qeyaamah; Greek: Ναός της Αναστάσεως, Naos tes Anastaseos; Latin: Ecclesia Sancti Sepulchri;[c] also called the Church of the Resurrection or Church of the Anastasis by Orthodox Christians) is a church in the Christian Quarter of the Old City of Jerusalem, a few steps away from the Muristan. The church contains, according to traditions dating back to at least the fourth century, the two holiest sites in Christianity: the site where Jesus of Nazareth was crucified,[1] at a place known as "Calvary" or "Golgotha", and Jesus's empty tomb, where he is said to have been buried and resurrected.[2] The tomb is enclosed by the 18th-century shrine, called the Aedicule (Edicule). Within the church proper are the last four (or, by some definitions, five) Stations of the Via Dolorosa, representing the final episodes of Jesus' Passion. The church has been a major Christian pilgrimage destination since its creation in the fourth century, as the traditional site of the Resurrection of Christ, thus its original Greek name, Church of the Anastasis. Today, the wider complex accumulated during the centuries around the Church of the Holy Sepulchre also serves as the headquarters of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem, while control of the church itself is shared between several Christian denominations and secular entities in complicated arrangements essentially unchanged for over 160 years, and some for much longer. The main denominations sharing property over parts of the church are the Greek Orthodox, Armenian Orthodox and Roman Catholic, and to a lesser degree the Egyptian Copts, Syriacs and Ethiopians. Meanwhile, Protestants, including Anglicans, have no permanent presence in the Church. Some Protestants prefer The Garden Tomb, elsewhere in Jerusalem, as a more evocative site to commemorate Jesus' crucifixion and resurrection. Contents [hide] · 1History o 1.1Construction o 1.2Damage and destruction o 1.3Reconstruction o 1.4Crusader period o 1.5Later periods · 2Entrance and parvis · 3Calvary (Golgotha) · 4Stone of Anointing · 5Rotunda and Aedicule · 6Catholicon and Ambulatory · 7Armenian compound o 7.1North of the Aedicule o 7.2South of the Aedicule · 8Syriac Compound · 9Status quo · 10Connection to Temple of Aphrodite · 11Location · 12Influence · 13In fiction, media, and popular culture · 14See also · 15Notes · 16References · 17Further reading · 18External links o 18.1Custodians History Main article: History of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre Construction The second room of the aedicula, purportedly containing the tomb of Jesus A diagram of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre showing the traditional site of Calvary and the Tomb of Jesus According to Eusebius of Caesarea, the Roman emperor Hadrian in the 2nd century AD built a temple dedicated to the goddess Venus in order to bury the cave in which Jesus had been buried.[3][4] The first Christian emperor, Constantine the Great, ordered in about 325/326 that the temple be replaced by a church.[5] During the building of the Church, Constantine's mother, Helena, is believed to have rediscovered the tomb (although there are some discrepancies among authors).[3] Socrates Scholasticus (born c. 380), in his Ecclesiastical History, gives a full description of the discovery.[6] Golgotha altar Constantine's church was built as two connected churches over the two different holy sites, including a great basilica (the Martyrium visited by Egeria in the 380s), an enclosed colonnaded atrium (the Triportico) with the traditional site of Golgotha in one corner, and a rotunda, called the Anastasis ("Resurrection" in Greek), which contained the remains of a rock-cut room that Helena and Macarius identified as the burial site of Jesus.[citation needed] According to tradition, Constantine arranged for the rockface to be removed from around the tomb, without harming it, in order to isolate the tomb; in the centre of the rotunda is a small building called the Kouvouklion in Greek[7] or the Aedicula in Latin,[d]which encloses this tomb. The remains are completely enveloped by a marble sheath placed some 500 years before to protect the ledge from Ottoman attacks. However, there are several thick window wells extending through the marble sheath, from the interior to the exterior that are not marble clad. They appear to reveal an underlying limestone rock, which may be part of the original living rock of the tomb. The church was built starting in 325/326, and was consecrated on 13 September 335. From pilgrim reports it seems that the chapel housing the tomb of Jesus was freestanding at first, and that the Rotunda was only erected around the chapel in the 380s.[citation needed] Each year, the Eastern Orthodox Church celebrates the anniversary of the consecration of the Church of the Resurrection (Holy Sepulchre) on 13 September.[8] Damage and destruction This building was damaged by fire in May of 614 when the Sassanid Empire, under Khosrau II, invaded Jerusalem and captured the True Cross. In 630, the Emperor Heraclius restored it and rebuilt the church after recapturing the city. After Jerusalem came under Arab rule, it remained a Christian church, with the early Muslim rulers protecting the city's Christian sites. A story reports that the Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab visited the church and stopped to pray on the balcony; but at the time of prayer, he turned away from the church and prayed outside. He feared that future generations would misinterpret this gesture, taking it as a pretext to turn the church into a mosque. Eutychius added that Umar wrote a decree prohibiting Muslims from praying at this location. The building suffered severe damage due to an earthquake in 746.[9] Early in the ninth century, another earthquake damaged the dome of the Anastasis. The damage was repaired in 810 by Patriarch Thomas. In the year 841, the church suffered a fire. In 935, the Orthodox Christians prevented the construction of a Muslim mosque adjacent the Church. In 938, a new fire damaged the inside of the basilica and came close to the rotunda. In 966, due to a defeat of Muslim armies in the region of Syria, a riot broke out and was followed by reprisals. The basilica was burned again. The doors and roof were burnt, and the Patriarch John VII was murdered.[citation needed] On 18 October 1009, Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah ordered the complete destruction of the church as part of a more general campaign against Christian places of worship in Palestine and Egypt.[10] The damage was extensive, with few parts of the early church remaining.[11] Christian Europe reacted with shock and expulsions of Jews (for example, Cluniac monk Rodulfus Glaber blamed the Jews, with the result that Jews were expelled from Limoges and other French towns[citation needed]) and an impetus to later Crusades.[12][13] Reconstruction View of Holy Sepulchre courtyard In wide-ranging negotiations between the Fatimids and the Byzantine Empire in 1027–8, an agreement was reached whereby the new Caliph Ali az-Zahir (Al-Hakim's son) agreed to allow the rebuilding and redecoration of the Church.[14] The rebuilding was finally completed with the financing at a huge expense by Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos and Patriarch Nicephorus of Constantinople in 1048.[15] As a concession, the mosque in Constantinople was re-opened and the khutba sermons were to be pronounced in az-Zahir's name.[14] Muslim sources say a by-product of the agreement was the recanting of Islam by many Christians who had been forced to convert under Al-Hakim's persecutions. In addition, the Byzantines, while releasing 5,000 Muslim prisoners, made demands for the restoration of other churches destroyed by Al-Hakim and the re-establishment of a Patriarch in Jerusalem. Contemporary sources credit the emperor with spending vast sums in an effort to restore the Church of the Holy Sepulchre after this agreement was made.[14] Despite the Byzantines spending vast sums on the project, "a total replacement was far beyond available resources. The new construction was concentrated on the rotunda and its surrounding buildings: the great basilica remained in ruins."[11] The rebuilt church site consisted of "a court open to the sky, with five small chapels attached to it."[16] The chapels were to the east of the court of resurrection, where the wall of the great church had been. They commemorated scenes from the passion, such as the location of the prison of Christ and of his flagellation, and presumably were so placed because of the difficulties of free movement among shrines in the streets of the city. The dedication of these chapels indicates the importance of the pilgrims' devotion to the suffering of Christ. They have been described as 'a sort of Via Dolorosa in miniature'... since little or no rebuilding took place on the site of the great basilica. Western pilgrims to Jerusalem during the eleventh century found much of the sacred site in ruins."[11] Control of Jerusalem, and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, continued to change hands several times between the Fatimids and the Seljuk Turks (loyal to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad) until the arrival of the Crusaders in 1099.[17] Crusader period Coat of arms of the Order of the Holy Sepulchre Many historians maintain that the main concern of Pope Urban II, when calling for the First Crusade, was the threat to Constantinople from the Turkish invasion of Asia Minor in response to the appeal of Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. Historians agree that the fate of Jerusalem and thereby the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was of concern if not the immediate goal of papal policy in 1095. The idea of taking Jerusalem gained more focus as the Crusade was underway. The rebuilt church site was taken from the Fatimids (who had recently taken it from the Abassids) by the knights of the First Crusade on 15 July 1099.[11] Painting by Émile Signol (1804–1892) of the capture of Jerusalem by the Crusaders on 15 July 1099 1. The Holy Sepulchre 2. The Dome of the Rock 3. Ramparts The First Crusade was envisioned as an armed pilgrimage, and no crusader could consider his journey complete unless he had prayed as a pilgrim at the Holy Sepulchre. Crusader Prince Godfrey of Bouillon, who became the first crusader monarch of Jerusalem, decided not to use the title "king" during his lifetime, and declared himself "Advocatus Sancti Sepulchri" ("Protector [or Defender] of the Holy Sepulchre"). By the crusader period, a cistern under the former basilica was rumoured to have been the location where Helena had found the True Cross, and began to be venerated as such; although the cistern later became the "Chapel of the Invention of the Cross," there is no evidence of the rumour before the 11th century, and modern archaeological investigation has now dated the cistern to 11th century repairs by Monomachos.[citation needed] Crusader graffiti in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre According to the German clergyman and orient pilgrim Ludolf von Sudheim, the keys of the Chapel of the Holy Sepulchre were in hands of the "ancient Georgians" and the food, alms, candles and oil for lamps were given them by the pilgrims in the south door of the church.[18] William of Tyre, chronicler of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, reports on the renovation of the Church in the mid-12th century. The crusaders investigated the eastern ruins on the site, occasionally excavating through the rubble, and while attempting to reach the cistern, they discovered part of the original ground level of Hadrian's temple enclosure; they decided to transform this space into a chapel dedicated to Helena (the Chapel of Saint Helena), widening their original excavation tunnel into a proper staircase. The crusaders began to refurnish the church in a Romanesque style and added a bell tower.[19] These renovations unified the small chapels on the site and were completed during the reign of Queen Melisende in 1149, placing all the Holy places under one roof for the first time. The church became the seat of the first Latin Patriarchs, and was also the site of the kingdom's scriptorium. The church was lost to Saladin,[19] along with the rest of the city, in 1187, although the treaty established after the Third Crusade allowed for Christian pilgrims to visit the site. Emperor Frederick II (r. 1220–50) regained the city and the church by treaty in the 13th century while he himself was under a ban of excommunication, with the curious consequence that the holiest church in Christianity was laid under interdict. The church seems to have been largely in Greek Orthodox Patriarch Athanasius II of Jerusalem's hands, ca. 1231–47, during the Latin control of Jerusalem.[20] Both city and church were captured by the Khwarezmians in 1244.[19] Later periods Church of the Holy Sepulchre (1885). Other than some restoration work, its appearance has essentially not changed since 1854. The Immovable Ladder, the small ladder below the top-right window, is also visible in recent photographs; this has remained in the same position since 1854 over a disagreement to move it. The Franciscan friars renovated it further in 1555, as it had been neglected despite increased numbers of pilgrims. The Franciscans rebuilt the Aedicule, extending the structure to create an ante-chamber.[21] After the renovation of 1555, control of the church oscillated between the Franciscans and the Orthodox, depending on which community could obtain a favorable "firman" from the "Sublime Porte" at a particular time, often through outright bribery, and violent clashes were not uncommon. There was no agreement about this question, although it was discussed at the negotiations to the Treaty of Karlowitz in 1699.[22] In 1767, weary of the squabbling, the "Porte" issued a "firman" that divided the church among the claimants. A fire severely damaged the structure again in 1808, causing the dome of the Rotunda to collapse and smashing the Aedicule's exterior decoration. The Rotunda and the Aedicule's exterior were rebuilt in 1809–1810 by architect Nikolaos Ch. Komnenos of Mytilene in the then current Ottoman Baroque style. The fire did not reach the interior of the Aedicule, and the marble decoration of the Tomb dates mainly to the 1555 restoration, although the interior of the ante-chamber, now known as the "Chapel of the Angel," was partly rebuilt to a square ground-plan, in place of the previously semi-circular western end. Another decree in 1853 from the sultan solidified the existing territorial division among the communities and set a "status quo" for arrangements to "remain forever," causing differences of opinion about upkeep and even minor changes,[23] including disagreement on the removal of the "Immovable Ladder," an exterior ladder under one of the windows; this ladder has remained in the same position since then. The church after its 1808 restoration The cladding of red marble applied to the Aedicule by Komnenos has deteriorated badly and is detaching from the underlying structure; since 1947 it has been held in place with an exterior scaffolding of iron girders installed by the British authorities. A careful renovation is undergoing, funded by a $4 million gift from King Abdullah II of Jordan and a $1.3-million gift from Mica Ertegun.[24] The current dome dates from 1870, although it was restored between 1994–1997, as part of extensive modern renovations to the church which have been ongoing since 1959. During the 1970–1978 restoration works and excavations inside the building, and under the nearby Muristan, it was found that the area was originally a quarry, from which white meleke limestone was struck.[25] To the east of the Chapel of Saint Helena, the excavators discovered a void containing a 2nd-century drawing of a Roman ship, two low walls which supported the platform of Hadrian's 2nd-century temple, and a higher 4th-century wall built to support Constantine's basilica.[21][26] After the excavations of the early 1970s, the Armenian authorities converted this archaeological space into the Chapel of Saint Vartan, and created an artificial walkway over the quarry on the north of the chapel, so that the new Chapel could be accessed (by permission) from the Chapel of Saint Helena.[26] In 2016, restoration works were performed in the Aedicule. For the first time since at least 1555, marble cladding which protected the estimated burial bed of Jesus from vandalism and souvenir takers[27] was removed.[28][29] When the cladding was first removed on October 26, an initial inspection by the National Technical University of Athens team showed only a layer of fill material underneath. By the night of October 28, the original limestone burial bed was revealed intact. This suggested that the tomb location has not changed through time and confirmed the existence of the original limestone cave walls within the Aedicule.[28] The tomb was resealed shortly thereafter.[28] Entrance and parvis See also: Immovable Ladder The entrance to the church, a single door in the south transept—through the crusader façade—is found past a group of streets winding through the outer Via Dolorosa, by way of a local souq in the Muristan. This narrow way of access to such a large structure has proven to be hazardous at times. For example, when a fire broke out in 1840, dozens of pilgrims were trampled to death.[30] Historically, two large, arched doors allowed access to the church. However, only the left-hand entrance is currently accessible, as the right door has long since been bricked up. These entrances are located in the parvis of a larger courtyard, or plaza.[citation needed] Also located along the parvis are a few smaller structures and openings:[citation needed] · Chapel of the Franks—a blue-domed Roman Catholic crusader chapel dedicated to Our Lady of Sorrows, which once provided exclusive access to Calvary. The chapel marks the 10th Station of the Cross (the stripping of Jesus' garments). · A Greek Orthodox oratory and chapel, just beneath the Chapel of the Franks, dedicated to St. Mary of Egypt. · Various entrances to Armenian, Greek Orthodox, and Ethiopian Orthodox chapels. · A small Greek Orthodox monastery, known as Gethsemane Metoxion, located to the side of the church. · The tomb of Philippe D'Aubigny (Philip Daubeny, d. 1236)—a knight, tutor, and royal councilor to King Henry III of England and signer of the Magna Carta—one of the few tombs of crusaders and other Europeans not removed from the Church after the Muslim recapture of Jerusalem in the 12th century, sheltered by a wooden trapdoor in the parvise. A stone marker was placed on his tomb in 1925.[citation needed] Broken columns—once forming part of an arcade—flank the church's front, which is covered in crusader graffiti mostly consisting of crosses. In the 13th century, the tops of the columns were removed and sent to Mecca by the Khwarezmids. The church's bell tower is located to the left of the façade. It is currently almost half its original size.[31] The historic Immovable Ladder stands beneath a window on the façade. The Stone of Anointing, where Jesus' body is said to have been anointed before burial A mosaic depiction of Christ's body being prepared after his death, opposite the Stone of Anointing Calvary (Golgotha) Main article: Calvary The Rock of Calvary as seen in the Chapel of Adam The Altar of the Crucifixion On the south side of the altar, via the ambulatory, is a stairway climbing to Calvary (Golgotha), traditionally regarded as the site of Jesus' crucifixion and the most lavishly decorated part of the church. The main altar there belongs to the Greek Orthodox, which contains the Rock of Calvary (12th Station of the Cross). The rock can be seen under glass on both sides of the altar, and beneath the altar there is a hole said to be the place where the cross was raised. Due to the significance of this, it is the most visited site in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. The Roman Catholics (Franciscans) have an altar to the side, the Chapel of the Nailing of the Cross (11th Station of the Cross). On the left of the altar, towards the Eastern Orthodox chapel, there is a statue of Mary, believed by some to be miraculous (the 13th Station of the Cross, where Jesus' body was removed from the cross and given to his family).[citation needed] Beneath the Calvary and the two chapels there, on the main floor, there is the Chapel of Adam. According to tradition, Jesus was crucified over the place where Adam's skull was buried. According to some, at the crucifixion, the blood of Christ ran down the cross and through the rocks to fill the skull of Adam.[32] The Rock of Calvary appears cracked through a window on the altar wall, with the crack traditionally claimed to be caused by the earthquake that occurred when Jesus died on the cross, while some scholars claim it to be the result of quarrying against a natural flaw in the rock.[33] Stone of Anointing Just inside the entrance to the church is the Stone of Anointing (also Stone of the Anointing or Stone of Unction), which tradition believes to be the spot where Jesus' body was prepared for burial by Joseph of Arimathea. However, this tradition is only attested since the crusader era (notably by the Italian Dominican pilgrim Riccoldo da Monte di Croce in 1288), and the present stone was only added in the 1810 reconstruction.[21] The wall behind the stone is defined by its striking blue balconies and tau cross-bearing red banners (depicting the insignia of the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre), and is decorated with lamps. The modern mosaic along the wall depicts the anointing of Jesus' body.[citation needed] The wall was a temporary addition to support the arch above it, which had been weakened after the damage in the 1808 fire; it blocks the view of the rotunda, separates the entrance from the Catholicon, sits on top of the now-empty and desecrated graves of four 12th-century crusader kings—including Godfrey of Bouillon and Baldwin I of Jerusalem—and is no longer structurally necessary. There is a difference of opinion as to whether it is the 13th Station of the Cross, which others identify as the lowering of Jesus from the cross and locate between the 11th and 12th stations up on Calvary.[citation needed] The lamps that hang over the Stone of Unction, adorned with cross-bearing chain links, are contributed by Armenians, Copts, Greeks and Latins.[citation needed] Immediately to the left of the entrance is a bench that has traditionally been used by the church's Muslim doorkeepers, along with some Christian clergy, as well as electrical wiring. To the right of the entrance is a wall along the ambulatory containing, to the very right, the staircase leading to Golgatha. Further along the same wall is the entrance to the Chapel of Adam.[citation needed] Rotunda and Aedicule The Aedicule The Rotunda is located in the centre of the Anastasis, beneath the larger of the church's two domes. In the center of the Rotunda is the chapel called the Aedicule, which contains the Holy Sepulchre itself. The Aedicule has two rooms, the first holding the Angel's Stone, which is believed to be a fragment of the large stone that sealed the tomb; the second is the tomb itself. Possibly due to the fact that pilgrims laid their hands on the tomb and/or to prevent eager pilgrims from removing bits of the original rock as souvenirs, a marble plaque was placed in the fourteenth century on the tomb to prevent further damage to the tomb.[34] Under the status quo, the Eastern Orthodox, Roman Catholic, and Armenian Apostolic Churches all have rights to the interior of the tomb, and all three communities celebrate the Divine Liturgy or Holy Mass there daily. It is also used for other ceremonies on special occasions, such as the Holy Saturday ceremony of the Holy Fire led by the Greek Orthodox Patriarch (with the participation of the Coptic and Armenian patriarchs).[35] To its rear, in a chapel constructed of iron latticework upon a stone base semicircular in plan, lies the altar used by the Coptic Orthodox.[citation needed] Historically, the Georgians also retained the key to the Aedicule.[36][37][38] Beyond that, to the rear of the Rotunda is a rough-hewn chapel containing an opening to a chamber cut from the rock, from which several kokh-tombs radiate. Although this space was discovered recently,[when?] and contains no identifying marks, many Christians believe[vague] it to be the tomb of Joseph of Arimathea, and it is where the Syriac Orthodox celebrate their Liturgy on Sundays. To the right of the Sepulchre on the northwestern edge of the Rotunda is the Chapel of the Apparition, which is reserved for Roman Catholic use.[citation needed] From May 2016 to March 2017, the Aedicule underwent restoration and repairs after the Israel Antiquities Authority declared the structure unsafe. Much of the $3 million project was funded by the World Monuments Fund.[39] Depiction of procession to the Aedicule of the Holy Sepulchre, 1831 Catholicon and Ambulatory The "Christ Pantocrator" mosaic in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre Cross over the Catholicon The omphalos and the north wall of the Catholicon · The Catholicon – On the east side opposite the Rotunda is the Crusader structure housing the main altar of the Church, today the Greek Orthodox catholicon. The second, smaller dome sits directly over the centre of the transept crossing of the choir where the compas, an omphalos once thought to be the center of the world (associated to the site of the Crucifixion and the Resurrection), is situated. Since 1996 this dome is topped by the monumental Golgotha Crucifix which the Greek Patriarch Diodoros I of Jerusalem consecrated. It was at the initiative of Gustav Kühnel to erect a new crucifix at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem that would not only be worthy of the singularity of the site, but that would also become a symbol of the efforts of unity in the community of Christian faith.[40] East of this is a large iconostasis demarcating the Orthodox sanctuary before which is set the throne of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem on the south side facing the throne of the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Antioch on the north side.[citation needed] The "Holy Prison", or Prison of Christ · Prison of Christ – In the north-east side of the complex there is The Prison of Christ, alleged by the Franciscans to be where Jesus was held. The Greek Orthodox allege that the real place that Jesus was held was the similarly named Prison of Christ, in their Monastery of the Praetorium, located near the Church of Ecce Homo, at the first station on the Via Dolorosa. The Armenians regard a recess in the Monastery of the Flagellation, a building near the second station on the Via Dolorosa, as the Prison of Christ. A cistern among the ruins near the Church of St. Peter in Gallicantu is also alleged to have been the Prison of Christ.[citation needed] Further to the east in the ambulatory are three chapels (from south to north):[citation needed] · Greek Chapel of Saint Longinus – The Orthodox Greek chapel is dedicated to Saint Longinus. · Armenian Chapel of Division of Robes · Greek Chapel of the Derision – the southernmost chapel in the ambulatory. Armenian compound Chapel of Saint Helena, Jerusalem, called by the Armenians "St. Gregory the Illuminator" · Chapel of Saint Helena – between the first two chapels are stairs descending to the Chapel of Saint Helena.[citation needed] · Chapel of Vardan Mamikonian – on the north side of the Chapel of Saint Helena is an ornate wrought iron door, beyond which a raised artificial platform affords views of the quarry, and which leads to the Chapel of Saint Vartan. The latter chapel contains archaeological remains from Hadrian's temple and Constantine's basilica. These areas are usually closed.[citation needed] · Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross – another set of 22 stairs from the Chapel of Saint Helena leads down to the Roman Catholic Chapel of the Invention of the Holy Cross, believed to be the place where the True Cross was found.[citation needed] North of the Aedicule · The Franciscan Chapel of St. Mary Magdalene – The chapel indicates the place where Mary Magdalene met Jesus after his resurrection.[41] · The Franciscan Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament (or Chapel of the Apparition) – in memory of Jesus' meeting with his mother after the Resurrection.[41] South of the Aedicule The three Greek Orthodox chapels of St. James the Just, St. John the Baptist and of the Forty Martyrs of Sebaste, south of the rotunda and on the west side of the front courtyard originally formed the baptistery complex of the Constantinean church. The southernmost chapel was the vestibule, the middle chapel the actual baptistery, and the north chapel the chamber in which the patriarch chrismated the newly baptized before leading them into the rotunda north of this complex.[citation needed] Syriac Compound · The Syriac Orthodox Chapel of Saint Joseph of Arimathea and Saint Nicodemus. On Sundays and feast days it is furnished for the celebration of Mass.[citation needed] On the far side of the chapel is the low entrance to two complete 1st-century Jewish tombs. Since Jews always buried their dead outside the city, this proves that the Holy Sepulchre site was outside the city walls at the time of the crucifixion. There is a tradition that Joseph of Arimathea and Nicodemus were buried here.[citation needed] Status quo The Immovable Ladder. Detail from photograph of main entrance above the façade. The Sultan's firman (decree) of 1853, known as the "status quo", pinned down the now permanent statutes of property and the regulations concerning the roles of the different denominations and other custodians.[42] The primary custodians are the Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, and Roman Catholic Churches, with the Greek Orthodox Church having the lion's share. In the 19th century, the Coptic Orthodox, the Ethiopian Orthodox and the Syriac Orthodox acquired lesser responsibilities, which include shrines and other structures in and around the building. Times and places of worship for each community are strictly regulated in common areas.[citation needed] The Greek Orthodox act through the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate as well as through the Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre. The Roman Catholics act through the Franciscan Custody of the Holy Land. The establishment of the 1853 status quo did not halt controversy and sometimes violence, which continues to break out occasionally. On a hot summer day in 2002, a Coptic monk moved his chair from its agreed spot into the shade. This was interpreted as a hostile move by the Ethiopians, and eleven were hospitalized after the resulting fracas.[43] In another incident in 2004, during Orthodox celebrations of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, a door to the Franciscan chapel was left open. This was taken as a sign of disrespect by the Orthodox and a fistfight broke out. Some people were arrested, but no one was seriously injured.[44] Franciscans during the procession on The Calvary, 2006 On Palm Sunday, in April 2008, a brawl broke out when a Greek monk was ejected from the building by a rival faction. Police were called to the scene but were also attacked by the enraged brawlers.[45] On Sunday, 9 November 2008, a clash erupted between Armenian and Greek monks during celebrations for the Feast of the Cross.[46][47] A less grave sign of this state of affairs is located on a window ledge over the church's entrance. A wooden ladder was placed there at some time before 1852, when the status quo defined both the doors and the window ledges as common ground. This ladder, the "Immovable Ladder", remains to this day, in almost exactly the same position it occupied in century-old photographs and engravings.[48][49] An engraving by David Roberts in 1839 also shows the same ladder in the same position.[50] No one controls the main entrance. In 1192, Saladin assigned door-keeping responsibilities to the Muslim Nuseibeh family. The wooden doors that compose the main entrance are the original, highly carved doors.[51] The Joudeh Al-Goudia family were entrusted as custodian to the keys of the Holy Sepulchre by Saladin in 1187.[52] Despite occasional disagreements, the religious services take place in the Church with regularity and coexistence is in general peaceful. An example of concord between the Church custodians is the recent (2016–17) full restoration of the Aedicule. Connection to Temple of Aphrodite Jerusalem after being rebuilt by Hadrian. Two main east-west roads were built rather than the typical one, due to the awkward location of the Temple Mount, blocking the central east-west route. The site of the Church had been a temple of Aphrodite before Constantine's edifice was built. Hadrian's temple had actually been located there because it was the junction of the main north-south road with one of the two main east-west roads and directly adjacent to the forum (which is now the location of the (smaller) Muristan); the forum itself had been placed, as is traditional in Roman towns, at the junction of the main north-south road with the (other) main east-west road (which is now El-Bazar/David Street). The temple and forum together took up the entire space between the two main east-west roads (a few above-ground remains of the east end of the temple precinct still survive in the Alexander Nevsky Church complex of the Russian Mission in Exile).[citation needed] From the archaeological excavations in the 1970s, it is clear that construction took over most of the site of the earlier temple enclosure and that the Triportico and Rotunda roughly overlapped with the temple building itself; the excavations indicate that the temple extended at least as far back as the Aedicule, and the temple enclosure would have reached back slightly further. Virgilio Canio Corbo, a Franciscan priest and archaeologist, who was present at the excavations, estimated from the archaeological evidence that the western retaining wall, of the temple itself, would have passed extremely close to the east side of the supposed tomb; if the wall had been any further west any tomb would have been crushed under the weight of the wall (which would be immediately above it) if it had not already been destroyed when foundations for the wall were made.[53] Other archaeologists have criticized Corbo's reconstructions. Dan Bahat, the former city archaeologist of Jerusalem, regards them as unsatisfactory, as there is no known temple of Aphrodite matching Corbo's design, and no archaeological evidence for Corbo's suggestion that the temple building was on a platform raised high enough to avoid including anything sited where the Aedicule is now; indeed Bahat notes that many temples to Aphrodite have a rotunda-like design, and argues that there is no archaeological reason to assume that the present rotunda was not based on a rotunda in the temple previously on the site.[54] Location Tourists and pilgrims at a side entrance to the Holy Sepulchre, photo by Bonfils, 1870s The Bible describes Jesus's tomb as being outside the city wall,[55] as was normal for burials across the ancient world, which were regarded as unclean.[56] Today, the site of the Church is within the current walls of the old city of Jerusalem. It has been well documented by archaeologists that in the time of Jesus, the walled city was smaller and the wall then was to the east of the current site of the Church.[citation needed] In other words, the city had been much narrower in Jesus' time, with the site then having been outside the walls; since Herod Agrippa (41–44) is recorded by history as extending the city to the north (beyond the present northern walls), the required repositioning of the western wall is traditionally attributed to him as well.[citation needed] The area immediately to the south and east of the sepulchre was a quarry and outside the city during the early 1st century as excavations under the Lutheran Church of the Redeemer across the street demonstrated.[57] The church is a part of the UNESCO World Heritage Site Old City of Jerusalem. Influence From the 9th century, the construction of churches inspired in the Anastasis was extended across Europe.[58] One example is Santo Stefano in Bologna, Italy, an agglomeration of seven churches recreating shrines of Jerusalem.[citation needed] Several churches and monasteries in Europe, for instance, in Germany and Russia, and at least one church in the United States have been modeled on the Church of the Resurrection, some even reproducing other holy places for the benefit of pilgrims who could not travel to the Holy Land. They include the Heiliges Grab of Görlitz, constructed between 1481 and 1504,the New Jerusalem Monastery in Moscow Oblast, constructed by Patriarch Nikon between 1656 and 1666, and Mount St. Sepulchre Franciscan Monastery built by the Franciscans in Washington, DC in 1898.[citation needed] In fiction, media, and popular culture · The Church of the Holy Sepulchre features prominently in the 2016 crypto-thriller The Apocalypse Fire by Dominic Selwood. · In the 2016 video game Dark Souls III, the abandoned tomb of the boss and character Aldrich strongly resembles, and is probably based on, the edicule of the Holy Sepulchre. See also · Catholicism portal · Eastern Christianity portal · Oriental Orthodoxy portal · Jerusalem portal · Art of the Crusades · Brotherhood of the Holy Sepulchre · Burial places of founders of world religions · Canons Regular of the Holy Sepulchre · Constantine I and Christianity · Christianity in Israel · Early Christian art and architecture · Fathers of the Holy Sepulchre · Garden Tomb · History of the Orthodox Church · History of Roman and Byzantine domes · List of oldest church buildings · Monza ampullae · Order of the Holy Sepulchre · Palestinian Christians · Rock-cut tombs in ancient Israel · Status quo (Holy Land sites) ALESTINE PRODUCTS : Dubek Ltd. is Israel's leading and longest-established cigarette manufacturer. The company produces, markets and distributes cigarettes, cigars, lighters and smoking accessories. Dubek is Israel's sole manufacturer of cigarettes and its brands include Time, Noblesse and Golf. Dubek was established in 1935 by Martin Gehl, a German emigrant with a Zionist vision of establishing a manufacturing base in Israel. In 1960, Dubek became one of the first companies to be publicly traded on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange. Throughout the years, Martin Gehl together with his son Zorach, expanded the business and took over all other cigarette manufacturers in Israel. Leaving Dubek as the only company in the field. In 2003 Dubek became a private company. Today the company is headed by Dr. Roy Gehl, Martin Gehl's grandson and its main offices are situated in Martin Gehl Street named after its founder. *Noblesse (Hebrew: נובלס‎) is an Israeli cigarette brand produced by Dubek, Israel's oldest cigarette manufacturer. The brand, launched in 1952 in a distinct green, 80mm, 'soft-pack' which has never been dramatically changed, is the oldest in Dubek's product line. The cigarette also has the highest tar (19mg) and nicotine (1.3mg) amounts available on the Israeli mass-market. Dubek has since released two different versions under the same Noblesse brand; a lower nicotine/tar blend in light-green packaging (Noblesse Blend - it is illegal to use the term 'lite' on cigarettes in Israe, and an even lower nicotine/tar blend in blue packaging (Noblesse American Blue). Noblesse cigarettes are also distributed or sold by the Israel Defense Forces to soldiers in Israeli military prisons. Company name: Dubek Ltd. Year of Establishment: 1935 Nature of activity:The company is the only cigarette manufacturer in Israel, manufacturing, marketing and distributing various cigarette, cigar, lighter and smoking accessory brands in Israel, the Palestinian Authority, Gaza Strip and the West Bank. In addition, the Company also imports its brands to a number of countries overseas. Brands: As the only cigarette manufacturer in Israel, Dubek has assumed the mission of developing, manufacturing and marketing an extensive variety of cigarette bran suitable for the Israeli audience in terms of various blend flavors and strengths. Company brands include Time, Noblesse, no. 9, Mustang, Europe, Nelson, Sheraton, Montana and Broadway. In addition to the brands manufactured in the Company's factory, the Company exclusively import brand manufactured by the Danish company House of Prince: Wall Street, Rockets and Slim Agenda. Dubek employs maximal efforts to provide its clients a large variety of high-quality products, while maintaining constant innovation and offering a solution to the entire Israeli population, for all its sectors. The Company's brands enjoy an international reputation of excellence and have won many gold medals for quality in the prestigious international competition "Monde Selection". Dubek, is a leading manufacturer of cigarettes and tobacco products, one of the first companies in Israeli industry. In 193 the Company was established by a group of Industrialists, including a mechanical engineer who specialized in equipment for the tobacco industry – Mr. Martin Gehl. Since its establishment, the Company has been persistent in manufacturing high quality cigarette products. In 1960 the Company became one of the first public companies traded on the Tel Aviv Stock Exchange. In 1965 Dubek introduced its flag cigarette brand: "Time" – which has become the favorite and most sold cigarette brand in Israel over the years. In 1971 Dubek purchased two competing tobacco companies and became the only cigarette manufacturer in Israel! Headed by Mr. Zorach U. Gehl, fourth generation of cigarette manufacturers, Dubek became a modern and efficient factory in the Israeli industry. In 1985 Dubek was ranked 11th on the Dun & Bradstreet list of "The 100 leading companies in Israeli Entrepreneurship" In 2003 Dubek became a private company. In 2004 Dubek received exclusive representation rights from the Danish "House of Prince" Company for its cigarette and tobacco products and began distributing its brands. Euromonitor International's Tobacco in Israel market report offers a comprehensive guide to the size and shape of the market at a national level. It provides the latest retail sales data, allowing you to identify the sectors driving growth. It identifies the leading companies, the leading brands and offers strategic analysis of key factors influencing the market - be they new product developments, packaging innovations, economic/lifestyle influences, distribution or pricing issues. Forecasts illustrate how the market is set to change. Buy online to access strategic market analysis and an interactive statistical database of duty paid retail volume and value sales, illicit trade volume, company and brand shares, pricing, distribution and production data. Carmel Winery is a vineyard and winery in Israe. Founded in 1882 by Edmond James de Rothschild, its products are exported to over 40 countries Overview Carmel Winery manufactures mainly wine, brandy and grape juice. It is the prime producer of wine in Israel, as it produces nearly half of the Israeli wine market, and one of the largest wine producers in the Eastern Mediterranean. It is the first and oldest exporter of wine, brandy and grape juice in the country, and also the largest producer of kosher wine in the world. The company is owned by the council of the Vine-growers Union (75%) and the Jewish Agency for Israel (25%). Its parent company is Societe Cooperative Vigneronne des Grandes Caves Richon Le Zion & Zikhron Ya'akov Ltd. (S.C.V.) The company holds the two largest wineries in Israel, as well as three new boutique wineries. These wineries include Rishon LeZion Winery, Zikhron Ya'akov Winery, Yatir Winery (50%) and Ramat Dalton Winery. In addition, the company owns 1,500 hectares (3,750 acres) of vineyards in Israel. Carmel's production reaches 25-30 million bottles per year and its profit from export adds up to USD 5 million from 40 countries. History When the settlers of the First Aliyah, Jews who immigrated to Palestine from Eastern Europe in the second half of the 19th century, encountered difficulties in cultivating the land due to their lack of experience and the soil's characteristics, they began to seek support outside of Palestine for establishing vineyards and wineries. Their representatives traveled to France, where they met Baron Edmond de Rothschild, owner of Château Lafite. As a Zionist, Rothschild provided financial and moral assistance to the settlers. His first vineyards were planted near Rishon LeZion, south east of Jaffa. In 1882, French rootstock was imported, and the Baron sent his own wine specialists to advise the pioneers in this enterprise. Construction began on a large wine cellar in Rishon LeZion. Later, a second winery was established in Zikhron Ya'akov, situated on Mount Carme just south of Haifa. In 1895 Carmel Wine Co. was formed to export wines of Rishon LeZion and Zikhron Ya'akov, first in Poland, then in Austria, Great Britain and the United States. In 1902 Carmel Mizrahi was founded in Palestine to market and distribute wines to the cities of the Ottoman Empire. In 1896, the first Carmel wines were presented at the International Exhibition of Berlin at a special pavilion devoted to the industries of the Jewish colony in Palestine. Over a hundred thousand people visited the exhibition, looked at the products, and drank a glass of Rishon LeZion wine. A year later, a world gardening exhibition was held in Hamburg where the settlers' wines were well received. Rishon LeZion wines won a gold medal at the Paris World's Fair in 1900. In 1906, both the vineyards and the management of the two wineries were deeded to the winegrowers, forming the "Societé Cooperative Vigneronne des Grandes Caves, Richon le Zion and Zikhron Jacob Ltd." Interestingly, many of Israel's historical figures worked in the vineyards and in the wineries. Perhaps the two most famous were the first Prime Minister of Israel, David Ben Gurion and his successor, Levi Eshkol Through the early decades of the 20th century the wine business bloomed. Branches of Carmel Wine Co., were opened in Damascus, Cairo, Beirut, Berlin, London, Warsaw and Alexandria and sales increased, particularly during the First World War, when allied troops passed through Palestine. However, the businesses fell sharply when the war was over. The industry lost its principal markets in Russia due to the October Revolution, in the United States because of Prohibition, and in Egypt and the Middle East because of Arab nationalism. Many of the vineyards were uprooted and replanted with citrus trees. However, during the Second World War, the industry began to grow again and with successive waves of immigrants, drinking habits gradually changed. In 1957, the estate of the Baron Edmond de-Rothschild deeded over the two wineries to the Cooperative of Winegrowers, the Societé Cooperative Vigneronne des Grandes Caves, by then, better known under the trade name Carmel Mizrahi in Israel and Carmel worldwide. For some years after the end of the war, Carmel's output was focused on sweet wines used for sacramental purposes. However, with the emergence of the new world in wine making, Israeli wine makers sought new varieties of grapes, thus in 1971 Cabarnet Sauvignon and Sauvignon Blanc, the first varietal wines from Israel, were presented in the United States market. In the early 80's, the wine industry in Israel fell upon hard times, but in the second half of the decade, wine became more popular and demands for quality stimulated tremendous improvements in the varieties of grapes being grown, the cultivation of new growing regions and the updating of fermentation and production techniques. Over the past few years, new state of the art wineries have been built, the existing wineries have been renovated and a new team of young, highly qualified wine makers have been employed. The constant search for improvement is now part of the fabric of the cooperative. In 2003 Carmel agreed to sponsor 'Carmel Trophy for Best Eastern Mediterranean Producer' at I.W.S.C. in London. In 2004 Peter Stern (formerly at Mondavi & Gallo) from California was appointed wine making consultant. The same year Carmel founded 'Handcrafted Wines of Israel'. Exporting to over 40 countries, Carmel products are found in wine stores and retail chains around the globe. Wineries Carmel's first winery and head office is Rishon LeZion Winery, which is located in the city of Rishon LeZion. It was built in 1890 by Baron Edmond de Rothschild, making it the oldest industrial building in Israel still in use. The winery is the largest winery in Israel in terms of production of wines, spirits and grape juice. It was the first establishment in Israel to install electricity and telephone, and David Ben Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, worked there. It underwent renovations in the 1990s. Carmel's second winery is Zikhron Ya'akov Winery. Located in Zikhron Ya'akov, it is used for production of wine and blending of olive oil. It was built in 1892, also by Baron Edmond de Rothschild. The winery is the largest winery in Israel in terms of grapes received at harvest. It includes a new boutique winery built in 2003 and a pilot micro-winery for research and development. Yatir Winery is a small winery built in 2000 with state of the art equipment, which receives grapes only from its own vineyards. It is situated in Tel Arad, an archaeological site with 3,000 years of history, in the northeastern Negev. The winery was a joint venture between Carmel (50%) and Gadash local wine growers (50%). Yatir Winery is now solely owned by Carmel Winery. Its vineyards are located in Yatir Forest in the southern Judean Hills. Another newly built winery is Ramat Dalton, located in Ramat Dalton, Upper Galilee. It was built in 2004 and receives its grapes from vineyards in Upper Galilee and Golan Heights. Vineyards Carmel Winery owns numerous vineyards across Israel, from the Galilee and the Golan Heights in the North to the Negev in the South. These vineyards include some of the finest individual vineyard sites in the country. On average, Carmel harvests about 25,000 tonnes of grapes, which is approximately 50% of Israel’s total harvest. Exported wines will show the growing region on the label. In the Galilee and Golan, which are generally accepted as Israel’s finest wine growing areas due to their higher altitude and cooler climate, Carmel's vineyards focus on growing quality grapes. Carmel has vineyards in the central and northern Golan and it is the leading winery presence in the premium Upper Galilee. The grapes from the finest vineyards go to Ramat Dalton Winery. The coastal regions of Sharon and Central Coastal Plain are Israel’s traditional grape growing areas, where Carmel's vines were originally planted. In the northern Sharon Plain, Israel's largest wine growing region, benefiting from Mount Carmel Range and from breezes off the Mediterranean Sea, Carmel owns extensive areas of vineyards. The main concentration of vineyards is in the valleys surrounding the winery towns of Zikhron Ya’akov and Binyamina. This is the largest region for Carmel which surrounds the Zikhron Ya’akov Winery. It was announced in early 2008 that a 150-acre (0.61 km2) wine park would be created on the slopes between Zikhron Ya'akov and Binyamina in order to promote tourism in the area and wine tourism in Israel in general. The Central Coastal Plain (known as Dan) and the rolling hills of the Judean Lowlands make up the second coastal region, in which grapes have been traditionally grown. This is the second largest area for growing vines in Israel, as it has a coastal Mediterranean climate: hot, humid summers and warm, mild winters. It is a large region for Carmel and it supplies the Rishon LeZion Winery. In the Judean Hills, an area proved to yield grapes of high quality due to its warm days and cool nighttime temperature, Carmel has premium vineyards in Yatir Forest, the largest forest in Israel. These vineyards, which are up to 900 meters above sea level, supply grapes for the boutique Yatir Winery. Carmel is a pioneer in the Negev, a popular area for vine growing in ancient times, with its high quality Ramat Arad vineyard situated on the north east Negev plateau, 500 meters above sea level with very hot days and cold nights. Tnuva, or Tenuvah, (Hebrew: תנובה‎, fruit or produce) is a cooperative (co-op) in Israel specializing in milk and dairy products. The 620 members of the cooperative are made up a large number of kibbutzim (or collective farms) and moshavim (or agricultural communities) in Israel. Tnuva is the largest dairy products manufacturer in Israel; its sales account for 70% of the country's dairy market as well as sales of meat, eggs and packaged food. Tnuva Central Cooperative for the Marketing of Agricultural Produce in Israel Ltd. was created in 1926, following a decision by kibbutz-movement leaders to make cooperatives to distribute and export several types of food products. Tnuva was created as a result but at first only delivered regular milk for drinking. It expanded to cover other dairy products in the 1930s. Tnuva was labeled by the Israel AntiTru Authority as a monopoly a status that essentially places the company under government regulation limiting the way it can change the price of its products to protect the consumer and smaller competitors. In 2006, it was reported that the Markstone Capital Partners Fund was interested in purchasing Tnuva and its assets for about $750 million. The general manager, Arik Reichman, values the company between $800 million to $1 billion. Another obstacle to selling the company or even a large minority share was the need to convert the cooperative to a company requiring a majority of the members approval. In November 20, 2006 Apax Partners Worldwide LLP, a London-based buyout firm, won a tender to buy control of Tnuva. The bid values the privately held food and dairy group at $1.025 billion, larger than Strauss-Elite Ltd. and Osem Investments Ltd. the two largest publicly held Israeli food companies. The Tnuva Story For nearly 80 years, Tnuva has provided consumers in the Holy Land with a wide variety of premium dairy and cheese products that are made with the freshest ingredients. Today, Tnuva is a billion dollar food conglomerate that is playing an integral role in the global food economy by offering a wide variety of quality products to millions of consumers in the Middle East, Europe and the USA. Tnuva's Mediterranean-style cheese and dairy products are produced in cutting-edge dairy production facilities located amidst pastoral Galilean hills and valleys. Tnuva's popular line of cheeses known as Emek, is derived from the Hebrew word for 'valley.The distinctive blue, red, green and white company logo has become a magnet for consumers in Israel and the USA who demand quality and quantity. In order to cultivate the changing dietary demands of sophisticated consumers on both sides of the ocean, Tnuva prides itself on producing a large number of innovative low-calorie and low-fat products that taste great and are easy on the waist. Tnuva relishes the challenge of offering consumers a unique shopping experience, as well as providing unique culinary tips to amateur and professional chefs. Tnuva Food Industries supplies the milk in the land of milk and honey, and, as one of Israel's largest food companies, it has no trouble keeping its dairy and meat divisions separate. Tnuva's dairy division supplies fluid and cultured milk products, butter, soy-based drinks, and cheeses throughout Israel. It markets the Yoplait brand in that country as well. The company's other food divisions are major processors and suppliers of chicken, eggs, fish, meats, frozen pizza, and deli items. Tnuva's subsidiary, Sunfrost, makes frozen vegetables. London-based investment firm, Apax Partners, owns 55% of the company; Israeli investment firm, Mivtach Shamir Holdings, owns 20About Shemen Industries Ltd The Idea The idea of innovating and founding an industry in Israel was first raised in the beginning of the previous century by a group of Hovevei Zion from Minsk, Russia. In 1903, Nahum Wilboshvitz (later known as Wilbosh), who headed the group, came to Israel in order to check the possibilities of industrial development in the country: searching for energy sources, examining ways of improving and developing the traditional industries, mainly of oil and soap. Wilbosh proposed to establish a company, which will engage in secondary production of olive oil made of rape once the oil is extracted. At the time, the process was performed using wood-pressers. Wilbosh suggested using chemical resources such as gasoline. The Foundation On a crowded land with olive plantations and oil-pressers that sell rape, a place was found. 100 dunam were bought from the land of Haditha village (located north-east of Lod). Wilbosh traveled to Europe in the purpose of learning the process of chemical extraction and ordering the required equipment. "Hadid" factory, later known as "Ben-Shemen", was established in 1905 with the financial assistance of Jews from Tzritzin who accepted Wilbosh's enterprise. The factory began working by the end of January 1906, when all the equipment arrived. The first season was not particularly blessed – out of 260 tons of rape, only 10% of oil was produced, and by the end of the season, the amount of oil reduced to merely 5-6%. The factory was used by Petach-Tikva and Rehovot's farmers. "Atid" Factory In 1906 Wilbosh married Shoshana Fineberg. Along with Shmuel and Eliyahu Berlin, he founded "Atid" company: a factory for oil and soapwort (i.e. extracting rape oil and soap). "Achad ha'Am" named the factory and "Hadid" factory joined the company. After purchasing a property on the seashore in Haifa, the factory was built from hewn stone (later it became a museum of oil industry). Nahum Arman managed the soapery, and the number of "Atid" workers amounted to 100 families within two years. Once the iron-pressers started working in the traditional industry, the percentage of rape oil decreased meaningfully, and thus, rape oil gradually became less profitable. Due to economic difficulties, the factory was shut down in 1910 and the factories were leased. Nahum Arman continued with a limited soap manufacturing until 1922. Establishing "Shemen" Despite the difficulties, Nahum Wilbosh did not give up, and in 1919 he founded "Shemen" company in London together with his brothers Moshe and Gedaliah Wilboshvitz and Eliyahu Panison. Since they needed a duty free port in order to export, they planned on building one near Caesarea. Houses were leased and schemes were written, but the British government objected, in spite of Zeev Jabotinsky's lobbyism. In 1922 Nahum and Gedaliah Wilboshvitz began establishing "Shemen" factory near "Atid" factory and started assembling the machines. In the new factory, advanced methods of manufacturing and machinery were integrated – hydraulic pressers and diesel engines as well as a modern refinery and soapery. The factory's engines were inaugurated in December 1924 by the British High Commissioner, Sir Herbert Samuel. "Shemen" factory put much effort in prompting and marketing the consumption of Israeli products, and was among the first factories which took a major part in building the country. The Modern Oil Industry At later times it was found that extracting oil from olives rape damages the oil quality, and therefore, this method of oil production was stopped at the late 70's. The oil industry moved to producing oils from grains of different plants such as: soybean, safflower, sunflower and corn whereas the olive oil industry returned only to a mechanical method of manufacturing by olive crushing, extracting the mash and separating the oil juice from the oil. Today "Atid" factory is located on the grounds of the "Shemen" factory in Haifa, and it has a museum which displays the oil industry in Israel, since ancient times to the beginning of manufacture until nowadays The Jaffa orange, also known as the Shamouti orange, is a very sweet, almost seedless orange exported from Israel. It takes its name from the city of Jaffa. Characteristics Jaffa oranges are very similar to Valencia oranges, though they are much sweeter. They are characterized by their oval shape, sweet flavor, and strong aroma. The peel is light orange in color, and is normally very easy to remove from the fruit. These oranges are very cold-tolerant, allowing them to grow outside of the subtropical regions normally associated with growing oranges. Jaffa oranges ripen in the spring-to-summer months, making it a midseason fruit. Jaffa oranges are susceptible to Alternaria, a type of fungus, and are prone to alternate bearing. History According to Daniel Rogov, the variety "originated in China and Cochinchina". **** The Notrim (Hebrew: נוטרים‎‎, lit. Guards; singular: Noter) were a Jewish Police Force set up by the British in the Mandatory Palestine in 1936 to help defend Jewish lives and property during the 1936–39 Arab revolt in Palestine.[1] The force was divided into Supernumerary Police and highly mobile Settlement Police.[1] Members were recruited almost entirely from the Haganah.[1] As notrim thousands of young men had their first experience of military training, which Moshe Shertok and Eliyahu Golomb cited as one of the fruits of the Haganah's policy of havlagah (restraint).[2] The British authorities maintained, financed and armed the Notrim until the end of the Mandate, even though they knew that although the force was nominally answerable to the Palestine Police Force it was in fact controlled by the Haganah.[3] After World War II, the Notrim became the core of the Israeli Military Police.[1] Contents [hide] 1 History in World War II 2 References 3 Bibliography 4 See also History in World War II[edit] On 6 August 1940 Anthony Eden, the British Secretary of War, informed Parliament that the Cabinet had decided to recruit Arab and Jewish units as battalions of the Royal East Kent Regiment (the "Buffs").[4] At a luncheon with Chaim Weizmann on 3 September, Winston Churchill approved the large-scale recruitment of Jewish forces in Palestine and the training of their officers.[4] A further 10,000 men (no more than 3,000 from Palestine) were to be recruited to Jewish units in the British Army for training in the United Kingdom.[4] Faced with Field Marshal Rommel's advance in Egypt, the British government decided on 15 April 1941 that the 10,000 Jews dispersed in the single defense companies of the Buffs should be prepared for war service at the battalion level and that another 10,000 should also be mobilized along with 6,000 Supernumerary Police and 40,000 to 50,000 home guard.[4] The plans were approved by Field Marshal John Dill.[4] The Special Operations Executive in Cairo approved a Haganah proposal for guerilla activities in northern Palestine led by the Palmach, as part of which Yitzhak Sadeh devised "Plan North" for an armed enclave in the Carmel range from which the Yishuv could defend the region and attack Nazi communications and supply lines, if necessary.[4] British intelligence also trained a small radio network under Moshe Dayan to act as spy cells in the event of a German invasion.[4] *** Uniform (and History) of Jewish Palestine Police "Noter" Though this isn't the most significant individual article I've had the pride of presenting in the online gallery (so far) this is probably the most interesting one: a near-complete uniform of a Jewish 'Noter' (guard) in Eretz-Israel/Palestine from the period 1936-48. This is something seen widely here in period photographs but very rarely encountered in 'real life', and because of its Zionist-social-military historical and iconic significance, for the benefit of my visitors from abroad, I'll combine the showcase with a historical summary of the Jewish 'Notrim' all here on this page. To shed light on the scope of the subject, the history of the 'Notrim' relates directly to the "Palestine Police", the concept of Jewish self-Defence in Palestine and the eventual establishment of the Israeli Army; the "tower and stockade" settlement movement; and the "kofer ha'yishuv" initiative. I'll cover all the subjects here. The key word for this overall subject is "Noter", which is best translated into English as "Guard". In Israeli social history, the movement which spawned and supported the creation of these "guards" - though donations, social norms, songs and prose - is called by the noun/pro-noun, the "Notrut", and those who served in the "Notrut" were called "Notrim" (in plural). I. THE HISTORY OF THE "NOTRIM" To understand the meaning of the uniform on display here I have to backtrack and explain first the origins of those who wore such a uniform: The "Notrim" were legally armed, uniformed Jews, organized into forces for the purpose of defense against Arab marauders, in 1936. They were created under the auspices of the British "Palestine Police". Establishment of the Palestine Police The Palestine Police Force was created on 1 July 1920, numbering 1,217 officers and men (both British and local Arabs and Jews) with the formation of a civil government in Palestine. This force assumed police responsibilities from the British Army (i.e. Military Police): the Army, which conquered Palestine from the Turks in 1917-1918, had until then fulfilled police duties in the area under the auspices of the Enemy Occupied Territory Administration (South). Between 1920 and 1926 the police forces in Palestine consisted of the "Palestine Police Force", the "Palestine Gendermerie", the "British Gendermerie", and various military units. In 1926, the two gendarmeries were disbanded, with some joining the British and Palestinian (Arab and Jewish) sections of the Palestine Police, while most transferred to a new formation called the "Transjordan Frontier Force" (TJFF). In that same year the Palestine Police established a supplementary police branch of volunteer assistants. Bechor Shitreet: judge, future first Israeli Minister of Police and signatory on the Declaration of Independence (1948) as a Mandate-period officer in the Palestine Police Force. In its early years the uniform of the Palestine Police Force was not homogenous and developed on a case-by-case basis depending on the locale: tunics and breeches varied from Army drill khaki to Police black, with variations in the patterns for officers or for staff, and sometimes a mixture of black tunics with khaki breeches. As a compromise for the religious needs (kneeling for prayer) of Moslem members and in order to avoid offending any of the nationalities by using a style associated too much with one over another, the Police generally wore a black woolen fez/tarboosh-styled hat called a "kolpak" hat, though here too headwear varied depending on the locale: in Tel Aviv the police wore specially designed visored hats with a white crown and blue band, in Zichron Yaakov and further north they wore Army caps, elsewhere they wore the kolpak. About the only standard accoutrements found everywhere were the leather jackboots, sam browne belts and cross-strap; in many instances, also a black or brown leather bandolier (though not in Tel Aviv). In time the Palestine Police would be clothed in a homogeneous manner: black pants, tunic and black kolpak hat or visored hats. The first officers of the Mandatory police in the Upper Galilee, 1918. Bechor Shitreet on far right, next to a Moslem, a Jewish and a Christian (far left) policeman. Seated on the left is the British district commander (Mackenzie). Jewish Self-Defence Although the police contained Arab and Jewish members, on the ground there were constant tensions between the two nationalities. Jewish residents back in the 1870's had already experienced attacks by Arab marauders and begun to protect themselves from further attacks; at the turn of the 20th Century they also employed the services of Circassians (Caucasian Moslems) to protect them, and then in 1907 a small group of settlers established the first organized self-defense organization, called "Bar Giora". In 1909 this grew into a larger region-wide entity called "HaShomer" ('The Watchman' or 'The Guardsman'). After the First World War, Arab nationalism gained momentum in Palestine resulting in violent attacks on Jews and Jewish property. Reacting to what appeared to be a lack of will on the part of the Palestine Police to afford adequate protection, in 1921 the "Ha'Shomer" movement transformed itself into a more organized and established body called the "Hagana" ("Defense"), now finally under the unified leadership of the Jewish community's governing body, the "Histadrut" (the Jewish worker's union) of the umbrella "Jewish Agency for Palestine". Nevertheless, the "Hagana" was what the British Mandatory Authorities considered to be an illegal armed force: though large in time, it was poorly equipped and unable to accumulate adequate experience in the open. Formation of the "Notrut" The watershed event which led to an expansion of legal Jewish self-defense in Palestine was the "Great Arab Revolt" (or "Arab Troubles") of 1936-39. The Arab leadership of Palestine instigated the revolt, which began in the form of a general strike, as a protest against Jewish immigration and sale of land to Jews; the strike was aimed at wrecking the Jewish economy which had been dependent until then on Arab labor. However the revolt also targeted Mandatory institutions and so drew the direct reaction of the British against it. In the year the Revolt erupted, the Palestine Police expanded its auxiliary branches with the recruitment of two full-time kinds of reinforcements: "Ghaffirs" and "Supernumerary Police": Every police commander was permitted to recruit "Additional Police" (i.e. "Supernumerary Police") for the hour of need. These forces were equipped with military rifles, Police uniforms (with the "Supernumerary" emblem see below on this page) and paid for by the Police from a special budget. The "Ghaffirs" (meaning "watchman" in Arabic) were a carry-over from Ottoman days and found throughout the Arabian world - a sort of private armed guard; in Palestine's case, armed and clothed in uniforms similar to those of the Police. They were armed with hunting rifles, subjected to less direct scrutiny than the "Supernumeraries", and permitted to enter the open spaces between Jewish settlements. Their salaries were paid by their employer - meaning, by the Jewish settlements and institutions themselves. Future IDF Chief of Staff, Moshe Dayan, as a 'Noter' and wearing a metal emblem of the 'Ghaffir' on his kolpak hat. The Police also recruited "Special Constables" (or "Special Police" - SP; in Hebrew "Mushbayim", meaning "Seconded") - civilian volunteers, working for free or recruited suddenly at times of emergency, who were employed in neighborhood defense, and equipped with weapons and uniforms (or just wore a police brassard on civilian clothes). The "Hagana" saw an opportunity in the enlistment of the Jewish population into these auxiliary forces to promote the creation of a legal Jewish self-defense force - really, the first ever legal armed force of Jews for Jews. The Jewish Agency supported the enlistment of Hagana members into these branches as a way of acquiring know-how and experience and in time succeeded in staffing these forces with Hagana members. In the meantime the general movement to recruit Jews into the Ghaffirs and Supernumerary Police lead to the coining of the name for these types of formations, the "Notrim". Notrim now became the word being used as a generic pronoun for all types of armed auxiliaries. In June 1936, the Agency proposed to the Mandatory Government that it recruit 2,550 guards, of whom 1,800 would be paid for by the Jewish settlements. Although the Government didn't accept the idea in total it did decide to allow individual settlements to request defense assistance on a case-by-case basis. Initially 600 men were sworn in - about a third being paid for by the Government - and these forces were restricted to operate only within the boundaries of the settlements. These forces were officially called "Temporary Additional Constables" (TAC). ------ The first Notrim appeared spring 1936 in a variety of appearances: some in old work clothes wearing the brassard of "Temporary Additional Police", and others in wrinkled, ill-fitting yellow-khaki uniforms and wearing the 'keffiyeh' scarf or the kolpak with a badge stamped "Ghaffir". In time there was a formal distinction between the uniforms worn, with black kolpaks being worn by the Police and brown-khaki ones being worn by "Notrim", however in practice there was no such distinction and throughout their existence (1936-1948) Notrim could be found wearing both Police black and Noter khaki uniforms and accessories. Some of these distinctions were determined by the locale of the Noter force in question: in Tel Aviv, for instance, with its strong Hebrew culture, Notrim regularly wore the white and blue visored hats of the municipal police. Among the first groups of Notrim in 1936, wearing Arab 'Keffiyeh' on their heads. Another early group of Notrim in training wearing a variety of hats, accoutrements and uniforms. The security situation worsened over the course of the months and by September the Government had recruited more than 2,800 "Notrim". These later recruits received matching uniforms and were granted permission to operate beyond the boundaries of the settlements - and the Government paid half of their salary (the settlements bearing the rest). Among the Notrim posted specifically to settlement defence, the officers were British while NCO's and privates were all Jewish. Notrim in the expanses outside settlement boundaries. In October of that year the Arab strike came to an end and the Mandatory Government awaited the arrival and recommendations of the Parliamentary "Peel Commission". During this period of relative calm the Government offered the Jewish Agency a deal whereby of it would disband the "Hagana", the Government would enlist expand the "Notrim" by several thousand. However the Agency declined the offer, and a combination of continuing Arab disturbances plus pressure by the British Army to cut expenditures led the Government to release many Notrim from regular duty. These would now be formed into a standby-reserve force of 4460 men. The Police appointed "Notrim" Officers in its national Command plus in four other districts, and so turned the force into a national force, now called the "Auxiliary Police Force" (in English). The Jewish Agency simultaneously appointed "Noter" liaison offers of its own to each of the district commands, and these kept in touch with the Hagana, for recruitment and coordination purposes. As the Peel Commission would eventually call the Jewish community in Palestine (called the "Yishuv" in Hebrew - a pronoun for the community) a "state within a state", so too the "Notrut" was rapidly becoming the army-in-the-making of the said state. From spring 1937 the Government permitted the Notrim to operate even beyond the surrounding areas of the settlements in times of pursuit of marauders; they were also authorized now to provide security and escort to workers, and so also assistance in the establishment of "tower and stockade" settlements (see below). By the summer the Mandatory authorities even began to regard the Notrim stationed on the settlements as a homogenous force, and called it the "Jewish Settlement Defence" (JSD). That same year the Jewish Agency and the Hagana organized three short legal training courses: 90 Notrim were trained, among them corporals and squad commanders. Under guidance by British sergeants, three more courses were run for corporals, and 150 men participated. The army firing grounds were opened before the Notrim and the Hagana initiated the publication of training booklets translated from the English, under the series title "For the Noter" ("La Noter"). In this way a legal framework was established for the distribution of training materials to members of the Hagana. These developments dovetailed with a general change in military doctrine within the Yishuv: until 1936 the Jewish leadership in Palestine had advocated a policy of "restraint" ("havlaga", in Hebrew) towards Arab attacks, with an emphasis on passive defense. The eruption of the Revolt spurred greater acceptance of a doctrine promoted by a prominent commander of the Haganah, Yitzhak Sadeh, who encouraged the Jews to "come out from behind the fences" and attack their enemies on their own soil. Notrim (the "Jewish Settlement Police" in this case - note the triangular emblem on the sleeve; more about the JSP below) receive mortar training. Testaments to the expansion of the "Notrut": membership documents of various auxiliary Noter formations. A Hebrew translation of the British Army training manual "Small Arms Training", 1937. Published by "La Noter" ("For the Noter"). As the "Notrut" movement started to crystallize into a coherent and organized vehicle, supporting both legal and illegal expressions of Jewish self-defense, operating inside and beyond the settlements, identified with the city as well as the agricultural countryside, it also started to express itself as the embodiment of the "new Hebrew man": assertive ("coming out from behind the fences"), independent and proud, entrusted with his own weapon, trained in defense (soon also attack). The image of the "new Hebrew man" protecting but also building also gained strength from the involvement of the Notrut in a non-military but equally Zionist activity: the establishment of new settlements. The new "Hebrew Man": the Noter Tzvi Ben-Gershon on duty, 1938. The Noter as cultural image, 1939. Notrim building the northern fence take a break to play music, 1938. A military-pioneering, but not militarist, bearing. A Noter enlistment ("meguyas", in Hebrew) pin symbolically associating the force with the tower and stockade settlement movement The Tower and Stockade Settlements The Zionist leadership's response to the Arab revolt took the expression of an idea put forward by Shlomo Gur, to build quickly erected wood and metal entrenched-settlements all over Palestine in order to create "facts on the ground" in time for the findings of the Peel Commission. Notrim guard a newly constructed "tower and stockade" settlement. From left to right, the entire political spectrum of the Jewish leadership in Palestine supported the initiative (called "Khoma u'Migdal" in Hebrew). To erect such settlements the raw materials were prepared ahead of time; in a certain place at a certain time groups of pioneers would set out with Noter accompaniment to erect the tower around which would then be built the stockade. The underground Haganah helped plan and carry out the program, and as many Hagana members were also formally members of the Notrim forces, the Notrim played both a covert and visible part in the logistics and erection of settlements as well as in the defense of contructed and completed settlements. Notrim protect the erection of the watch tower for kibbutz Betelem (now Ein Gev), 1937. Notrim help found kibbutz Hanita, 1938. Built near the Lebanon border in an area without road transport, requiring manual transport of materials and much armed protection, this was considered the crowning achievement of the tower and stockade movement, and an opera was written in its honor. The "tower and stockade" initiative was at once both a practical and an ideological movement, and the close association of the "Notrut" with its promulgation made that Jewish defense force almost synonymous with the Zionist "tower and stockade" movement. The movement's daring achievements stirred emotions throughout Jewish Palestine: books, pamphlets and even full length operas were written in its honor. In the course of the next 3 years, from December 1936 to October 1939, about 53 such settlements were built - and these would have a decisive effect on the separation lines of the future, 1947 United Nations partition plan for Palestine. Original film showing the establishment of kibbutz "Negba" with Hebrew commentary (and sadly, some modern background music which kills the nostalgic atmosphere). Another, silent, original film is here ----- When the Arab Revolt resumed in force in autumn 1937, the Jewish Agency authorized the corporal-level Notrim on the settlements to recruit their own reserve forces, and organized short training courses for the new recruits. In 1938 a machine-gun training course took place and in general training was expanded to include field training. At the start of the year about half of the salaried Notrim were raised in rank to Corporals and Sergeants - the Corporals for the settlements and the Sergeants for settlement blocs. The Sergeants underwent month-long training courses run by British Army trainers and overseen by members of the Hagana. Sergeants were also appointed to "Senior Sergeants" or "Group-Sergeants". The Jewish Agency continued to press for the expansion of the number of Notrim and their weapons, and in the summer a British Army and a British Police representative evaluated the defense needs of the settlements. They proposed the creation of the "Jewish Settlement Police" (JSP; in Hebrew it's called the "Hebrew Settlement Police"), and this was approved at the start of 1939. In the meantime about 60 "Mobile Guards" ("Mishmarot Nayim" - also called "Manim" from the initials of the Hebrew words) numbering 400 men were established, and these traveled in armored 'tenders' - some provided by the Government and others from the Jewish Agency. Of all the Noter formations, the "Manim" were frequently seen wearing steel helmets - ironically, German steel helmets. The feeling of public security fostered by the mere existence of mobile Jewish self-defence at any hour of the day turned the word "Tender" into a cultural icon of its own: whenever mentioned - even to this day - it always implied Jewish armed self-defence. Such a central cultural idiom was it that the lyricist Moshe Vilensky wrote a song called "The Tender Drives Forth", sung by Shoshana Damari in 1939 (can be heard here). With the establishment of the Jewish Settlement Police, the "Manim" were absorbed into its battalions and they formed the JSP's mobile alert force. The size of the JSP, particularly the "Manim", already reached 14,400 men in November 1938 (i.e. even before the official establishment of the JSP) - and of these 1,300 were fully salaried. Noter "Manim" in an armored car An armored mobile force of Noter "Manim", with Moshe Dayan in foreground (right). A Noter "Manim" force at Kibbutz Dan in 1939. The "Kofer Ha'Yishuv" Between the years 1938 and 1948 the Jewish community in Eretz Israel / Palestine (called in Hebrew, the "Yishuv") instituted a mechanism by which to raise funds for self-defense, and this initiative operated between 1938-1939 under the name "Kofer Ha'Yishuv" (sometimes translated too directly as the "People's Ransom Fund" and so perhaps it's more accurate to refer to it as the "Community Levy"). Unlike other forms of fundraising by the Yishuv, the "Kofer" was not a voluntary charity but an actual levy imposed on the Jewish residents of Palestine: although the British Mandatory government did impose compulsory taxes, these were relatively light and insufficient for the provision of various services to the Mandate's residents. Until the Arab Revolt of 1936-1939, the Jewish community had raised supplemental funds for areas like education through the issuance of vouchers called "Shekels" - donors who gave money received a "Shekel" token which entitled them to participate in elections to the Yishuv's various bodies. The Zionist land purchasing authority, the Jewish National Fund (JNF), had long issued labels used as semi-official stamps: here one design connects the Notrut with the Tower and Stockade settlement movement - the chief beneficiaries of the "Kofer Ha'Yishuv". A "Kofer HaYishuv" womens' wedding band given as a token in exchange for the donation of a real precious-metal wedding ring. A "Kofer HaYishuv" donation pin given as a token for the donation of jewelry, 1938-39. However the sheer intensity of the Arab Revolt required additional funds to support both the "Tower and Stockade" settlement enterprise and the general protection required both for that movement and for civilian life in general. With funds for these settlements and armed branches lacking, the Yishuv instituted the "Kofer ha'Yishuv". In this framework taxes were levied on imports, entertainment events, on drinks at coffee shops - and even as imposed contributions during key Jewish holidays. Evaders faced "honor courts" and the movement as a whole generated a culture of its own with slogans, jingles and informative booklets. In this context, residents were encouraged to donate items of precious metals, under the framework of an initiative called "Matat Takhshitim" ("giving of jewelry"), in exchange for which they would receive a 'token' in return - a ring, a pin, a document. In this regard there were men and women who even donated their wedding rings and so in exchange the Kofer fund gave male and female token rings in return, with the words "Kofer ha'Yishuv" stamped on them. The Jewish Settlement Police With the approach of the Second World War, in March 1939, the Commander of the British Army in Palestine launched a committee on the defense of the settlements, including members of the Army, the Police and the Jewish Agency. The committee dealt with organizational changes in light of the establishment of new Jewish settlements. As a result the Jewish Settlement Police (JSP) became a legal armed militia charged with defending the settlements and the open spaces between them. Beyond the legal duties of the Notrim, these forces also enabled greater training of Hagana members and even provided cover for the armed activities of the Hagana. The JSP received weapons training and soldiery/field training. Horseback Jewish Settlement Police The JSP was organized into 10 companies, each one commanded by a British junior-officer and assisted by a Jewish liaison office selected by the Jewish Agency. Although called "companies" the JSP units were known as "battalions" ("gdudim", in Hebrew) among the Jews, as they also took into account the reserve forces and "special" forces, as well as the broad physical distribution of the forces which in most cases matched the zones of the Hagana's disposition. Each battalion was given a Hebrew name and denoted by a colored triangular emblem: 1. Jerusalem - dark blue 2. South - white 3. Sharon (Samaria) - orange 4. Emek Kheffer (Kheffer Valley) - red 5. The Carmel - green 6. Zvulun - yellow 7. Yizrael (Jezreel) - purple 8. Gilboa - black 9. Yarden (Jordan) - light blue 10. Galil Elyon (Upper Galilee) - brown Jewish Settlement Police uniform kit with slouch hat. Around this time the Settlement Police also enjoyed an improvement of sorts in its work conditions and received organized uniforms plus their trademarked broad visored Australian slouch hat in place of the hot kolpak. The national command of the JSP also worked to improve the quality of training and preparation: physical fitness received emphasis and the Jewish Agency brought in a specialist to do training; the British command also supported this initiative and launched a series of conventions and competitions in participation with its own officers. By the end of July 1939 the Jewish Settlement Police numbered 15,872 Notrim, of whom 1,275 were regulars on full pay, with 4,788 rifles and 48 machine guns at their disposal. 438 of the full-time Notrim served in 67 "Manim" units, who accounted for 33 open tenders, 20 armored vehicles; other Notrim rode on horses or went by foot. Mounted cavalry "Manim" Jewish Settlement Police "Mobile Reserve" (Manim) members from Even Yehuda. Development of Notrim Forces from 1938 From the summer of 1938 the recruitment of Notrim was expanded to include general security details. The Palestine Police recruited Notrim for policing, liaison and investigative duties, as assistance to British policemen, and by the summer of 1939 there were more than 1600 "general" Notrim in the Palestine Police. Though the full story of this force is presently outside the scope of this brief history, among the forces of a more military nature, the Notrim also staffed the "Special Night Squads" (1938-39) of Orde Charles Wingate; Wingate's methods inspired the formation of additional locally-based 'attack' forces such as Noter "flying columns" ("Meofefot", in Hebrew), "ambush" units and other "special forces". Likewise some 240 Notrim were seconded to the British Army as "Jewish Attached Police" (JAP), serving in assistant-management and operational roles. Another 550 served in 'private' plant defense units of the Electric Company, the Ashlag company and others; 300 more helped set up the northern border fence, and another 400 served in the railway guard forces. Still more Notrim served provided airfield and port protection. A section of the Special Night Squads from Kfar Yona assigned to protect power lines. Men of the Special Night Squads with a British officer, in Emek Yizrael (Jezreel Valley). By summer 1939 there were around 22,000 Notrim, regular and mobile, in the various units and frameworks of the service, and at their disposal more than 7,850 rifles, machine guns grenades and other weapons. And by May of that year the Arab Revolt was finally put down - however the British then implemented the severe immigration restrictions of the 1939 White Book (effectively pursuing the policy which the Arab Revolt aimed at achieving). The Jewish Agency, through the Hagana, encouraged voluntary enlistment into the Notrut, organized and guided the recruits according to the security needs of the hour, and helped further widen and deepen the breadth of the legalized training, from thousands of members to tens of thousands; to grow the units from squads into platoons, to companies and battalions on a nation-wide scale. When the Second World War broke out the Mandatory authorities found in the Notrim a permanent solution to the defense needs of the Jewish community. At the outbreak of the war there were 4,275 full time Notrim including 1,275 "Manim"; another 14,600 men were available on partial basis, plus some 2,200"specials". The needs of the war effort took its toll and with fund lacking some 1,300 men were released by spring 1940, among them members of the plant guards and the Army's "Jewish Attached Police"; the tenders of the "Manim" were also put out of service, the quantity of weaponry available was cut and the number of fully salaried Notrim was cut to under 1,100. Nevertheless receruitment continued during the war. With the threat of invasion by Rommel looming on Palestine, in the summer of 1942 the national organizational plan of the Jewish Settlement Police was cancelled and its battalions submerged under the command of the district Palestine Police commanders - but their number increased from 10 to 12 (as did their designations): 1. Jerusalem - dark blue 2. Negev - blue 3. South - white 4. Sharon (Samaria) - orange 5. Emek Kheffer (Kheffer Valley) - red 6. Carmel - green 7. Zvulun - yellow 8. North (to Western Galilee) - gray 9. Yizrael (Jezreel) - purple 10. Gilboa - black 11. Yarden (Jordan) - light blue 12. Galil Elyon (Upper Galilee) - brown Wartime Notrut recruitment poster: "For the Defense of the Nation and the Homeland Enlist in the Notrim Corps!" The nature of the JSP's work also changed: the mobile component increased such that half of the regular (full-time) Notrim were formed into reinforced "Manim" units. Training was also directed at protection against aerial assault and coordinated defense of settlements in time of invasion with the Army. The JSP also underwent special training geared at military preparation: additional training courses - in British Army camps and under Hagana personnel training - took place for Sergeants' in a variety of weapons, anti-tank weapons and explosives; the quantity of weaponry for the JSP also increased, and by end of 1942 it received 2,000 rifles, over 100 Bren machine guns and 12 mortars (one per battalion). That same summer of 1942 there was another recruitment drive and some 500 men were formed into the "Coastal Guard". However as the tide of the war turned, from 1943, the Notrut movement began to suffer from a lack of weaponry by the British Army and also from low interest: Jewish volunteers preferred to join the Army itself or the Hagana's special "Palmach" strike companies. And as the threat of German invasion waned so too did the morale of the Notrim: war needs caused the formation to be striped of many war-related weapons, turning many branches of the Notrut into less combat oriented forces; many members also quit. And to bolster waning numbers in the Notrut bodies (other than the "Jewish Settlement Police"), the Mandatory authorities drafted in more Arabs. To combat the decline in stature and morale, the Notrut formed public support bodies for the movement as well as a national secretariat in 1943, to serve the needs of its members and their families. There was an increase in the movement's numbers and this yielded the creation of district training camps. By the end of the war, there were 4,200 full-time Notrim in various formations: about 2,475 in the Jewish Settlement Police (plus 16,000 part-time servicemen), more than 900 in "general" duties in the Palestine Police, 250 attached to the British Army, about 300 attached to the Royal Air Force, about 200 guarding the Haifa Port and POW camps, and some 50 in private plant security units. Even though the Hebrew Revolt of 1944-47 shook relations between the Jewish community in Palestine and the Mandatory Government, the Notrut was not cancelled by the authorities, and continued to serve until 1948. Jewish youths were encouraged to undertake 1 year of "national service" in the formations of the movement. Nevertheless the presence of Jewish Notrim in various formations waned as the British enlisted more Arabs; the Jewish Agency in turn dedicated more attention to staffing specifically the "Jewish Settlement Police". By the end of 1947 there were only 1,300 Jewish Notrim in the other bodies as compared to 5,850 Arabs already in March 1946. The Jewish Settlement Police continued to function on a basis of 12 battalions, with 1,650 full-time regulars and 12,800 reservists in 1945, and even a rise to 1,860 regulars in 1947. With the departure of the British from Palestine and the outbreak of the Israeli War of Independence, in the initial stages of the war, the Jewish Settlement Police of 1,800 men together with the 2,100 in the "Palmach" formed the main prepared armed force at the disposal of the Jewish leadership. At this stage of the war the major target was control of the transportation arteries, and the JSP with its "Manim" forces protected both settlements and the arteries while the Palmach and other forces were organized into strike and offensive movements. Both were subsequently absorbed into the new Israel Defence Forces (IDF). FORMATION NAMES: Historiography records the names of the Palestine Police and Noter units under various names, depending on whether the source is in Hebrew or English. The proper names of the following units are given in both languages: Hebrew Name English Name Shotrim Musafim Zmaniyim Temporary Additional Constables Gafirim Ghaffirs Shotrim Musafim ("supplemental police") Supernumerary Police Shotrim Meyukhadim Special Police / Special Constables Kheyl-Ezer La Mishtara ("assistant corps for the police") Auxiliary Police Force Kheyl Le Haganat Ha'Yishuvim Ha'Yehudim ("Corps for the Protection of the Jewish Settlements") Jewish Settlement Defense (JSD) Mishteret Ha'Yishuvim Ha'Ivriyim Jewish Settlement Police (JSP) Mishmarot Nayim ("Manim") Mobile Guards / Mobile Reserve Plugot Ha'Layla Ha'Meyukhadot Also sometimes called "Plugot Ha'Esh Ha'Meyukhadot" * "Pluga" in Hebrew means "company" but is often erroneously translated as "platoon". Special Night Squads Also sometimes known in Hebrew as "Special Fire [dispensing] Squads" Mishmar Ha'Khof Coastal Guard Kheyl Ha'Safar Ha'Ever Ha'Yardeni Transjordan Frontier Force II. MILITARIA & EMBLEMS of the PALESTINE POLICE and NOTRIM Palestine Gendarmerie hat badge (version 1): with date (1921), seen worn on black kolpak hats. Palestine Gendarmerie hat badge (version 2): without date, seen worn on black kolpak hats. Transjordan Frontier Force (TJFF) copper-nickel hat badge (version 1): with winged horse; usually found with double-pronged back. Another variant of this version exists without the Crown. The other TJFF emblem (i.e. version 2) is much larger, of a different design (to be shown here soon), akin to the Palestine Gendarmerie, worn on black kolpak hats. Transjordan Frontier Force (TJFF) copper-nickel miniature collar badge (version 1) Palestine Police blackened tombak hat/kolpak emblem badge. Some have flat metal sliders on the reverse and others have a two-pronged back instead. Palestine Police blackened tombak miniature collar emblem badge. Worn on each collar. Palestine Police silver colored copper-nickel hat/kolpak emblem badge. Some have flat metal sliders on the reverse and others have a two-pronged back instead. Palestine Police filled-in/uncut silver colored copper-nickel hat/kolpak emblem badge. Frequently seen in period photographs of the 1920's-30's but rarely encountered. Some have flat metal sliders on the reverse and others have a two-pronged back instead. Palestine Police filled-in/uncut silver colored miniature collar emblem badge. Palestine Police sergeants arm sleeve badge: bears the "PP" design without text legend around the circular frame. Palestine Police "Special Police" hat badge: bears "SP" emblem on a filled-back/uncut badge. Of interest is the odd pointed tip of the slider and the filled-in Crown. Large Palestine Police emblem: worn as a ceremonial device on a cross belt worn on dress uniforms, seen both with white and black tunics. A Jewish officer, Pinkus, in the Palestine Police: in kolpak hat, probably with the filled-in "PP" emblem, and wearing the collar miniatures along with the ceremonial belt large "Palestine Police" emblem and metal shoulder strap device (see below). Large Palestine Police pith helmet emblem device: worn on the front of round-crowned khaki pith helmets, circa. 1920's. Palestine Police "Ghaffir" hat badge in darkened tombak: seen worn on brown and black kolpak hats. The "Ghaffir" insignia: it should be pointed out that this emblem was not unique to Palestine. This badge existed at least 30 years earlier and was used by similar guard forces in the British empire fulfilling ghaffir duties. There is an erronious tendency to associate this emblem only with Palestine or with the Jewish guard services which also happened to wear it. Palestine Police "Supernumerary Police" hat badge in copper-nickel: worn on kolpak hats. Note that the Crown is filled in. Undocumented "Noter" badge: unique in design for a number of reasons - legend in English and Hebrew, bears the Royal Crown but makes no reference to the Palestine Police; in darkened tombak with double-pronged back; not maker-marked. Note the odd exaggerated shape of the Crown top. The letters "TASC" are sometimes referred to as "Tel Aviv Security Company" in collector literature (which could justify the Hebrew-only accompanying legend, which reads "Guarding and Protection" / "Shmira u'Bitakhon") but in all probability this is not Tel Aviv related and is rather for the "Temporary Additional Security Constables" recruited formally as "Temporary Additional Constables". I saw this type of badge on the visored white-and-blue hats worn by Tel Aviv security bodies and other uniformed Mandatory arms (like customs and excise), however still, as Tel Aviv was the chief "Hebrew" city and its police forces bore the municipal emblem, for this TASC emblem to have a unique Tel Aviv connection, I'd expect to see the municipal emblem on it. Palestine Police metal shoulder strap tag in English. Palestine Police metal shoulder strap tag in Arabic. Noter "Port Guard" unit tag device in English and Hebrew ("Mishmar Ha'Namal"): may be a shoulder strap tag, sleeve or hat badge; has two-pronged back. Badge of the Jewish Settlement Police. Bears the initials of "Hebrew Settlement Police" (M.Y.A.), the word "Battalion" and the standard triangular emblem of a battalion unit. Hat badge of the British Middle East Commando forces in World War II. Seen in a photo of an Irgun member in the Special Night Squads, worn on the front of his slouch hat; if the badge dates at least from 1939 then it may also have been an SNS emblem too. To be researched... Palestine Police cloth shoulder patch Shoulder strap tag bearing the word "Noter" in Hebrew. Cloth patch for the "Temporary Additional Police" round, metal Palestine Police uniform button; came in large (this one) and small sizes flat, metal Palestine Police uniform button; came in large (this one) and small sizes bakelite Ghaffir button; came in large (this one) and small sizes round, metal Palestine Prison Service uniform button round, metal button for Palestine Railways uniform Palestine Police metal belt buckle with emblem belt buckle for Palestine Plant Protection Service attached to the "Government of Palestine" III. PRESENTATION OF THE UNIFORM ON DISPLAY Our presentation aims to be as detailed as possible both for the interests of the collector as well as the reenactor. Being a rarely seen object we're taking the liberty of showing numerous angles of the same objects; our obsession with details also reflects our pride in the object. We have at our disposal several sets of trousers belonging to the Palestine Police and we will display these as well as alternate variations of the Police / Noter uniform. For the purpose of introducing the article, we will begin with a survey of the uniform on display at the start of this page. We will display first the combination of the uniform's accessories and then salient parts of each accessory individually. *** Tel Aviv Port (Namal Tel Aviv) is a commercial and entertainment district in northwest Tel Aviv, Israel along the Mediterranean Sea. Contents [hide] 1 History 2 Awards 3 References 4 External links History[edit] The site of the future port with the Levant Fair and Cafe Galina (ca. 1934) One of the effects of the general strike of the Arabs of Mandatory Palestine at the outbreak of their 1936–39 revolt, was that the Arab port of Jaffa needed to be replaced, which led to the swift creation of an alternative port in the neighbouring Jewish town of Tel Aviv.[1] Tel Aviv port, founded by Otzar Mif'alei Yam, could already be opened on a small scale in 1936,[2][1] and was finally completed and inaugurated at its current size on February 23, 1938.[3] However, it only stayed fully operational for less than two years, the outbreak of the Second World War putting an end to its civilian use,[1] as the British Navy took over the facilities.[3] After the end of the war in Europe, an attempt to reactivate the port remained unsuccessful due to the lack of shipping at the time.[1] During the civil war between Jews and Arabs from November 1947 and until Israel's declaration of independence in May 1948, as well as in the ensuing international war in 1948, the Jewish, then Israeli forces imported a substantial amount of equipment and weapons via the Tel Aviv port.[1][3] After the War of Independence, the port operated only on a partial basis and was finally closed down on October 25, 1965 when its operations moved to the newly-built Ashdod Port.[1] After that followed a period of decay, and by the end of the century the area was used by day as a low-key shopping place for tiles and plumbing supplies, while at night it attracted prostitutes and drug addicts.[1] The change came with the appointment of architect Orna Angel at the helm of the Marine Trust Company that owns the port area.[1] After completely overhauling the infrastructure by 2002, the administration attracted shop owners to move to the upgraded area by charging token rents.[1] An open competition for the landscaping of the space around the buildings was organised in 2003, and by 2008 the new boardwalk in wavy shapes evocative of the sand dunes that once stood at this place, was opened to the public.[4][5] As a result of the transformation, the Tel Aviv Port, known in short as the Namal, has become the most popular attraction in Tel Aviv with 4.3 million visitors annually.[citation needed] In 2011, it was announced that the site would be developed to become a major tourist site with recreational and cultural venues similar to Times Square in New York.[6] Awards[edit] In 2010 the public space development project by Mayslits Kassif Architects, who transformed the space around the restored port buildings, was awarded the Rosa Barba European Landscape Prize, seen as the most prestigious European award for landscape architecture.[7] The project was the winner of a 2003 public competition, at which it was presented by Mayslits Kassif Architects in collaboration with Galila Yavin.[5] *** Tower and Stockade (Hebrew: חוֹמָה וּמִגְדָּל‎, translit. Homa u'migdal, lit. "wall and tower"), was a settlement method used by Zionist settlers in Mandatory Palestine during the 1936–39 Arab Revolt. The establishment of new Jewish settlements was legally restricted by the Mandatory authorities, but the British generally gave their tacit accord to the Tower and Stockade actions as a means of countering the Arab revolt. During the course of the Tower and Stockade campaign, some 57 Jewish settlements including 52 kibbutzim and several moshavim were established throughout the country. The legal base was a Turkish Ottoman law that was in effect during the Mandate period, which stated that no illegal building may be demolished if the roof has been completed. Contents [hide] 1 Background 2 Settlements 3 See also 4 References 5 External links Background[edit] During the Arab Revolt, these settlements provided safe havens on land that had been officially purchased by the KKL-JNF,[1]protected Jewish populations, particularly in remote areas, on these Jewish-owned land and maintained "facts on the ground." These settlements would eventually be transformed into fortified agricultural settlements, and served for security purposes (as defences against Arab raiders) as well as creating contiguous Jewish-populated regions, which would later help determine the borders of the United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine. All of the major settlement groups (mostly kibbutzim and moshavim) took part in the campaign, which consisted of assembling a guard tower with a fence around it. While many of these settlements were not officially approved by the British Mandate authorities, existing settlements were not dismantled according to the Turkish Ottoman law still valid at the time. Due to the threat of immediate attack, at least as much as to any need of complying to the clauses of this law, the construction of the Tower and Stockade settlements had to be finished very quickly, usually in the course of a single day.[2] What is less well known is the fact that the British authorities were rather lax at implementing restrictions against such Jewish activities at a time when their main security concern was the Arab revolt, thus wall and tower settlements were always created by day, not by night - against some still prevailing myths. In the very different political and security climate of the final months of the Mandate, a similar act of creating facts on the ground happened in April 1948 at Bror Hayil, when much of the work was indeed done during the night (more details at Bror Hayil page).[3] The invention of the Wall and tower system is attributed to Shlomo Gur, founding member of Kibbutz Tel Amal (now Nir David), and was developed and encouraged by the architect Yohanan Ratner (see Russian-language article here [1]). The system was based on the fast construction of pre-fabricated wooden moulds, which would be filled with gravel and enclosed with barbed wire fencing. In average, the enclosed space formed a yard of 35 x 35 metres (1 dunam). Within this protected yard, the pre-fabricated wooden observation tower and the four sheds sheltering the initial 40 settlers were erected. The constructions were located within eyesight of neighbouring settlements and with accessibility for motor vehicles.[1] 57 were constructed between the last days of 1936 and October 1939.[4] A model of a Homa u'migdal was constructed for the Land of Israel Pavilion at the 1937 World Exposition in Paris.[5] Settlements[edit] Tower and Stockade settlements by date of establishment: Kfar Hittim, 7 December 1936 Tel Amal (now Nir David), 10 December 1936 Sde Nahum, 5 January 1937 Sha'ar HaGolan, 31 January 1937 Masada, 31 January 1937 Ginosar, 25 February 1937 Beit Yosef, 9 April 1937 Mishmar HaShlosha, 13 April 1937 Tirat Tzvi, 30 June 1937 Moledet (called "Bnei Brit" and "Moledet-Bnei Brit" between 1944-1957), 4 July 1937 Ein HaShofet, 5 July 1937 Ein Gev, 6 July 1937 Maoz Haim, 6 July 1937 Kfar Menachem, 27 July 1937 Sha'ar HaNegev (renamed Kfar Szold before it moved altogether to the Galilee in 1942; site resettled in 1944 as Hafetz Haim), 15 August 1937 Tzur Moshe, 13 September 1937 Usha, 7 November 1937 Hanita, 21 March 1938 Shavei Tzion, 13 April 1938 Sde Warburg, 17 May 1938 Ramat Hadar, 26 May 1938 Alonim, 26 June 1938 Ma'ale HaHamisha, 17 July 1938 Tel Yitzhak, 25 July 1938 Beit Yehoshua, 17 August 1938 Ein HaMifratz, 25 August 1938 Ma'ayan Tzvi, 30 August 1938 Sharona, 16 November 1938 Geulim, 17 November 1938 Eilon, 24 November 1938 Neve Eitan, 25 November 1938 Kfar Ruppin, 25 November 1938 Kfar Masaryk, 29 November 1938 Mesilot, 22 December 1938 Dalia, 2 May 1939 Dafna, 3 May 1939 Dan, 4 May 1939 Sde Eliyahu, 8 May 1939 Mahanayim, 23 May 1939 Shadmot Dvora, 23 May 1939 Shorashim, 23 May 1939 Hazore'im, 23 May 1939 Tel Tzur (now Moshav Nahalat Jabotinsky in Binyamina), 23 May 1939[6][7] Kfar Glikson, 23 May 1939 Ma'apilim, 23 May 1939 Mishmar HaYam (now Afek), 28 May 1939 Hamadiyah, 23 June 1939 Kfar Netter, 26 June 1939 Negba, 12 July 1939 Gesher, 13 August 1939 Beit Oren, 1 October 1939 Amir, 29 October 1939

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